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2016-02-27 Chiniak Town MeetingKodiak Island Borough Chiniak Town Meeting Saturday, February 27, 2016, 2:30 p.m. Chiniak School Work Sessions are informal meetings of the Assembly where Assembly members review the upcoming regular meeting agenda packet and seek or receive information from staff. Although additional items not listed on the work session agenda are discussed when introduced by the Mayor, Assembly, or staff, no formal action is taken at work sessions and items that require formal Assembly action are placed on regular Assembly meeting agenda. Citizen's comments at work sessions are NOT considered part of the official record. Citizen's comments intended for the "official record" should be made at a regular Assembly meeting. Page 1. AGENDA ITEMS (Finalized on Thursday, February 18, 2016) 2 - 3 a. Update on the Library/Evacuation Center - KIB Staff 2016-02-18 Tucker Memo Chiniak Library Replacement 4-123 b. Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr. Joseph Staley Fire Damage Assessment Report Complete C. Review Options for Forest Salvage 124-125 Cl. Review Process and Creation of a Service District Code Sections Creation of Service Districts 2. CITIZENS' COMMENTS 3. MAYOR'S COMMENTS 4. ASSEMBLY MEMBERS COMMENTS 5. CONTACT INFORMATION AND QUESTIONS You may contact Resource Management Officer Duane Dvorak for any questions regarding the assessment reports. His work number is (907) 486-9304 and his email is ddvorak(cilkodiakak.us. For any other information relating to this town meeting, please call the Borough Clerk's Office at 486-9310. Visit our website at www.facebook.com/Kodiakislandborough@KodiakBorough @KodiakBorough www.kodiakak.us ri Page 1 of 125 AGENDA ITEM #1.a. KODIAK ISLAND BOROUGH ENGINEERING/FACILITIES DEPARTMENT MEMORANDUM DATE: February 18, 2016 FROM: Robert Tucker, Direclo® TO: Bud Cassidy, Borough Manager" RE: Chiniak Library Replacement INTRODUCTION 1 have been in contact with our insurance carrier (AMUJIA) and their secondary carrier (McLarens) in regard to our claim for the replacement for the Chiniak library. The Engineering and Facilities Department has completed compiling the documents and drawings needed for their review for replacement costs of the library building and generator building. We are continuing to work on the replacement costs of the library's interior contents (computers, tables, chairs, bookshelves etc.) and things other than the books and DVD's. These items have been complied and priced through the library inventory held by the Kodiak Island Borough School District in their library database. We should have the building contents portion completed and submitted to AMUIIA within the next few weeks to be included as part of the claim. OPTIONS As far as the replacement of the building, it is my understanding that we do have a few options. The following are the options as I understand them: Option 1: Replace the Library in the same location. This option replaces the identical building on the same site as it existed before. It would utilize the same driveway and utilities (water pumped up from the school and its own septic system). In this case the insurance would cover all the costs of the replacement of the structure, repairs to the utilities and interior contents no matter what that total cost came to. Option 2: Replace the Library in a new location. This option would build the identical facility at a new location. The insurance company would pay for all the facility costs, but would not pay for any other cost such as new driveways or new utilities. Page 2 of 125 Update on the Library/Evacuation Center - KIB Staff AGENDA ITEM #1.a. Option 3: Replace the Library with a new facility that is not identical. This option covers a new facility that is not identical to the old library no matter where it is built. In this case the insurance would give the Kodiak Island Borough a check for the cash value of the old library and its contents and we can decide what and where to build. Option 4: —Attach a new building to the existing school This option would attach the new library building to the Chiniak School. The advantages of this option are that the water and sewer is already available but I would recommend that you proceed carefully with this option. The concern is if the school was to ever close again (due to low enrollment) the heating and ventilation plant that runs the school would be a very expensive plant to operate to heat and ventilate the library portion of the building. I am not saying this is a bad option just that we should look at it as a standalone facility attached to the school. CONCLUSION These options are my interpretation of options based on several phone conversations with AMIJIIA. I have asked for a written response from and from the secondary insurer to formalize these options. However I have not received this request. Page 3 of 125 Update on the Library/Evacuation Center- KIB Staff AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Northwnd Forest Consultants, LLC PO Box 1346 Chehalis, WA 98532 northwfndlorestfcomcast.net 2/4/2016 Duane Dvorak Resource Management officer Kodiak Island Borough Manager's Office 710 Mill Bay Road, Room 108 Kodiak, Alaska 99515 Letler_gf Trawult al Mr. Dvorak; On February 4, 2016 NorthWind Forest Consultants LLC in accordance with the agreementsigned and dated the 11u of December A.D. 2015 with the Kodiak Island Borough delivered to your office In the form of a found hard copy and a PDF file the final report for the Assessment of Fire Damage to Forestlands Owned by The Kodiak Island Borough Caused by the Twin Creek Fire. NorthWind Forest Consultants LLC Joseph Staley PresideN/Owner Page 4 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. An Assessment of Fire Damage To Forestlands Owned By The Kodiak Island Borough Caused by the Twin Creek Fire Prepared fort he Kodiak Island Borough by: Norlhy lnd Forest Consohents, LLC Po Bay 1346 Chehalis, WA 96532 Mr. Joe Staley, Forester and President, NorthWind Forest Consultants, LLC Page 5 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #I.b. Table of Contents Section Page # Introduction...................................................................... 2 ProjectScope ................................................................... 2 Area Description ............... . ............................................ 3 Methods...................................................................... 3-5 Field Equipment Used ................................................... 5 Results............................................................ ............ 5-6 Findings.......................................................................... 6 Appendix A ................................................... Ortho Image Appendix B ........................ Data Summary/Project Map AppendixC ................. . .................................. Plot Photos Appendix D ......................................................... USFS-FEIS Appendix E........._._ ................................... Tree Physiology Appendix F............_ ...................... Revised Scope of Work Page 6 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr. AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Introduction On August 27`h, 2015 a fire began in the vicinity of the West Fork of Twin Creek. The suspected cause was a breach of the power line due to a tree falling into the lines. The environmental condition at the time of ignition were dry vegetation, low to moderate humidity, warm temperatures and strong sustained wind of 49 mph (gusts to 65 mph) from a west/northwest direction as reported by the National Weather Service. The fire moved on an easterly direction through previously harvested units and riparian timber stands. Due to the strong sustained winds the fire most likely moved through these units quickly by spotting out ahead of the core fire. This is substantiated by the evidence of unburned areas mixed with burned areas. Eventually the fire reached the standing timber that occupies property owned by the Kodiak Island Borough. Due to the significant fuel load present in standing timber, the fire grew in intensity and moved through approximately 900 acres of timber into more harvested areas to the east until it reached the ocean shore at Cape Greville. This was a stand replacing crown fire. The most intense portion of this fire was found in the standing timber. This was due to the mixture of fuels found and the ability of the fire to move from the ground into the crown via the existence of the moss found in a typical Kodiak stand of Sitka Spruce (Picea Sitchensis). This fire burned or scorched the majority of the foliage found In the crowns of the standing timber. The crown of a tree is the part of the tree that is the food factory (appendix E -Tree Physiology). Without the ability to adequately produce food the trees will at the very least become severely stressed and susceptible to insect damage but more certainly will die. The fires effect on the crown will account for the largest single causation of tree mortality. This is supported by all the academic literature found on the subject of fires effect an Sitka Spruce (Picea Sitchensis). Proiect Scope Based on the revised scope of work dated 11/24/2015 (appendix F), this fire damage assessment report will answer the following questions: 1. Percentage of Spruce trees that suffered substantial crown damage; 2. Percentage of Spruce trees that suffered substantial fire damage at the base or over the root system; 3. Percentage and location of areas within the property that may have escaped substantial fire damage; 4. Other observations that the consultant believes to be relevant, in their professional opinion, after reviewing the site. This report and assessment will not address any other topics not related to this scope of work. Page 7 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Area Description The property subject to this report is found on Kodiak Island in section(s) 31 and 32, township 29 south, range 18 west and section(s) 5 and 6, township 30 south, range 18 west, Seward Meridian and is approximately 14 air miles southeast of the City of Kodiak. The property contains approximately 900 gross acres of burnt timber based on GIS identification. The general macro aspect of this property is north facing, with some micro aspects of east and west facing slopes due on terrain. The general topography consists of gentle slopes varying between 5 to 10 percent on the north half of the property and three ridges of complex slopes found on the south half of the property. These ridges have varying slopes of between 5 to 40 percent. The steepest terrain is found in the southeast corner of the property. There are five significant drainages found on the property and are defined by the ridges. Portions of these drainages are known or believed to be anadromous but additional investigation may be justified. The timber found on the subject property would best be described as a homogenous mature Sitka Spruce stand with an average diameter at breast height (DBH) of 23 inches and an estimated average age of 150 years. There was significant stand defect and wind damage observed during this assessment. The stand defect appeared to be pre -fire and due to the age of the trees. The fire had the effect of accentuating this defect in most cases. The wind damage observed was more recent and was due to the fire weakening of the tree bole and roots. Methods To measure any given population one can either count all members In the population or the population can be sampled and then the sample is used to expand the results of the sample to the entire population. Because of the size of this population it was determined that a sampling method was justified. To accurately sample any population it is important to accurately identify the size of the entire population and establish protocols that remove biases. The population size was identified by using an ortho-rectified satellite image (appendix A) of the subject property taken September 22nd, 2015 and Arc -GIS mapping software. The properties boundaries were established from field located property corners using a GPS and survey plat information supplied by the US Bureau of Land Management (BLM). Areas within the property boundaries identified as being burnt were digitized with a polygon to develop the gross acreage of fire affected timber. From this gross acreage deduction were made for known regulatory timber retention (RMZ) and visually identified non -forested acres. This established the net acreage used to identify the entire population used in this health assessment. Page 8 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. To establish the sample grid and sample frequency, we turned to the Alaska Forest Resources & Practices regulations, more specifically 11 AAC 95.375 (g). This regulation describes the State's accepted procedure for determining the number of commercially available trees in an affected timber stand that are significantly composed of fire killed or fatally damaged trees. The full language of this regulation is attached below. 11 AAC 95.375 (g) To applyfor an eremptionfrom reforestation requirements tinder (b) (2) of this .section, a landowner must request an exemption in the reforestation section of a detailed plan of operations under 11 AAC 95.220(10) or a change in operations under 11 AAC 95.230 and must demonstrate that the affected stand is significantly composed of insect and disease. killed, fire killed, wind thrown, or fatally damaged trees. If required by the division, the request must include a description of fire sampling procedure, the sampling data, and a data summary. The data summary must show the number of commercial noes per acre that are dead or fatally damaged, and the percentage of commercial trees in the stand that are dead or fatally damaged. Sample plots mast be located without bias throughout the affected stand For stands 1,000 acres or less, the minimum sample density is 10 plots per 100 acres. For stands greater than 1,000 acres, the minimum sample density is sir plots per 100 acres. Fewer plots are acceptable if the sample standard error is less than 10 percent of the mean. Either fixed diameter or variable plot sampling methods are acceptable. Sample plots must average approximately at least five sample frees of commercial value. Trees must be recorded by diameter class as either dead, damaged by insects, disease, fire, or wind, or not impacted. The division may accept other documentation or -field evidence in lieu of sampling in cases where the extent of damage is obvious. (h) Following receipt of the exemption request, the division may inspect the ,site to confirm the information submitted before determining whether the stand is significantly composed of insect and disease -killed, fire killed, wind thrown, or fatally damaged frees. The division will make this determination as part of the review of the detailed plan of operations or change in operations. In areas exempted from reforestation requirements, the landowner and operator shall protect existing reproduction from logging damage where feasible. To create the described sample described in 11 AAC 95.375 (g), we again turned to Arc -GIS and used the fishnet tool to create a ten acre grid and referenced that grid to the parcel boundary lines. A unique function of the fishnet tool is that it will create a point in the center of each grid box. These points were then used as the locations where trees would be sampled. These office generated sample points were exported to a GPS file to be used in the field to navigate to each sample point's location on the ground. This is much more accurate than the way sample points were field located before GPS was available. To determine the size of the sample, the previously completed 1997 timber cruise done by Parsons & Associates for the Kodiak Island Borough was consulted for stand characteristics. Using statistical analysis, it was determined that a sample of 10% of the population would generate a valid outcome. Using the sample size and the sample point frequency, It was determined that 1/10"' acre fixed radius circular plots would achieve the correct sample for this size of population. Page 9 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.6. Once in the field, sample points were located by using the Garmin and Trimble GP5 to navigate to their respective location. All efforts were made to get as close to the actual sample point as possible and in most case less than 6 foot accuracy was achieved. Once each sample point was located, a sequential number was written on an orange flag hung high near the sample point and a ground flag was placed at the point of sample. From this center point, trees were determined to be in the sample based on the sample size radius (37.2 feet). This was done by measuring the distance from the center point of the sample plot to the tree using the laser range finder. Then each tree found to be in the sample was evaluated for fire damage and recorded for each of the three criteria (roots, bole and crown) as established by the scope of work. These are the three parts of a tree that determine the health of that tree. Serious damage to any one of these will cause tree mortality. The scope of work required the assessment to establish the "percentage of Spruce trees that suffered substantial damage", so a rating method was employed using a scale of 0 to 10 to evaluate each of the tree parts. The assigning of the rating was based on the visual evidence found at each tree as compared to what would be found at a healthy tree. If a trees root collar had no evidence of fire then that tree received 0 rating for roots. Conversely if there was substantial evidence of burning around the root collar then the tree was given a rating between 1 and 10 commensurate with the severity. This was the same rating method used for the bole and crown. The final step taken at each sample point was to document, by representative photographs (appendix C), the conditions found at the point and the surrounding area. A minimum of four pictures were taken at each sample point. This data as collect was compiled and summarized for the basis of this report. Field Equipment Used Trimble 6000 series Geo-XH GP5 data collector with a Tornado external antenna (sub -meter accurate), Garmin 64S GPS, Laser Technology TruPulse 200L laser range finder (used to measure distance), waterproof Nikon Coolpix S33 digital camera, a pocket Biltmore stick (used to measure OBH), a 75 foot rewind tape measure (used to measure distance), a pocket hand compass (used to measure direction) and a plot center staff (use to maintain sample point center). Results Based on the summary of the assessment data (appendix B), the total population of commercially viable trees is 61,477 trees. This population is found on 782 acres. There Is an average of 79 trees per acre (TPA) and the average tree has a diameter at breast height (DBH) of 23 inches. Page 10 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. The assessment measured 621 trees, on 79, 1/101" acre sample points for an expanded sample of 6,210 trees (10.1% of the total population). This correlates to an average of 8 trees measured on each sample point. The assessment found that 25% of these trees had substantial root damage based on receiving a damage rating of 70% or higher, 48% of the trees had substantial damage to their boles based on receiving a damage rating of 70% or higher and 90% of the trees had substantial damage to their crowns based on receiving a damage rating of 70% or higher. The assessment data also indicates that 6,138 total trees remain undamaged by fire. This represents approximately 8 trees per acre are undamaged, although these trees will not be evenly distributed throughout the subject property. One of the requested receivables was the percentage and location of areas within the subject property that may have escaped substantial fire damage. None of the sample points in this assessment picked up any such categorized areas and to seek any of them out would have inserted a bias into the sample. Our professional opinion based on review of the Ortho image used is that there may be less than 3% of the property that would meet this category. Based on this observation, if a definitive answer is necessary, there are some photogrammetric techniques available to perform this analysis but they are expensive and were not included in the proposal. Findings Based on the assessment data and field observations, the fire event of August 271h, 2015, created a substantial crown fire and a lesser but still significant ground fire on the subject property, with 90% of the trees sustaining 70% or greater crown damage. The effect of this fire event is best characterized as a stand replacement fire and the expected mortality will be extensive. This is suggestive of literature and observations of the results of fires that occur in Sitka Spruce stands. The US Forest Service -"Fire Ecology Information System" (appendix D) very succinctly states the effects of fire on Sitka Spruce (Picea Sitchensis): 1. 'Its thin bark and a shallow root system make it very susceptible to fire damage"; 2. 'Sitka spruce forests have a fire regime of long -interval (150 to 350+ years) severe crown or surface fires which result in total stand reolacement"lemphasis added]; 3. 'The immediate effect of a cool to hot fire is damage to the cambium layer, usually resulting in death of the tree." Other fires that have occurred in the Kodiak Archipelago (Afognak Island, slash burn 1989 and wild fire 1996) have exhibited substantial mortality in the population of both the young and mature trees that were exposed to fire. Page 11 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... Ilk l, &NIA V r I AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Appendix B KIB Timber Health Assessment Summary Based an Assessment Data 1/22/2016 8 of Plots 79 Plot Factor 10 H of Trees 621 sampled Av. p Trees 7.9 per plot GIS Burned Acres 900 gross RMZ Acres 93 Non -forested Acres 25 Assessment Acres 782 net Plot Radius 37.2 ft. Plot Factor 10 TPA 79 Total Trees 61,477 Av. DBH 23 in. %Significant Damaged Trees M55,340 Roots 25% Bole 48% Crown 90% Estimated Un -damaged Trees Remaining: 6,138 TPA: 8 - Spacing: 75'X 75' Page 14 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Appendix B Comment and Photo log Plot # General Comments Photos 101 Scorched salmon berry 1-4 102 Small wood, wet site 5-8 103 Small Stream 9.16 104 Scorched salmon berry 17-26 105 Hillside NW aspect 35% 27-34 106 brush burnt extensive - 35-42 107 Hillside NW aspect 30% 4348 Plot # General Comments Photos 201 heavy crown damage 1.88, 1-2 202 wet site non-merch 9-16 & 3-5 203 north edge of burn 17-24/6-8 204 edge of burn by 4 wheeler trail/wet site on half plot 24-32/9-12 205 heavy crown damage 36A4 / 13.15 206 heavy ground burn 45-52 / 18-20 207 heavy ground burn 53-60 208 ground burned moderate 61-68 209 lite ground bum 69-76 Plot General Comments Photos 301 ground heavy burn 3-10 302 moderate ground burn 11-18 303 ground burnt 19-26 304 ground burn 27-34 305 heavy ground burn / extensive crown damage 35-42 306 heavy salmon berry patch / heavy crown damage 43-50 307 heavy crown damage 51-58 Plot # General Comments Photo s 401 lite ground burn / crown damage 1-8 402 heavy burnt / heavy Crown damage 9-16 403 lite ground burn 17-24 404 hot burn / heavy crown damage 25-32 405 forested wet site scorched 33.40 406 crown damage 41-48 Page 15 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Appendix B Photos Plot 0 General Comments Photos 501 heavy burnt / heavy crown damage 11-18 502 edge of wetland/heavy ground bum /heavy crown damage scorched 27-34 503 heavy burnt 35-42 504 significant crown scorch 43.50 505 edge of big creek rmz/ only 1 tree in unit /significant crown damage 51-58 506 heavy burnt /heavy crown damage 59-66 507 significant crown & bole damage 67-74 508 heavy ground burn /burnt holes /crown damage 75-82 509 lite ground burn /scorched crowns B3-90 510 significant crown damage /ground burn 91-98 Plot p General Comments Photos 601 heavy burnt /significant crown damage 1-8 602 scorched crowns /significant pitching 9-16 603 ground burn /significant crown damage 17-24 604 heavy burn /significant crown damage 25-32 605 ground burn /basal burnt 33-00 606 RMZ Big Creek /heavy crown damage / ground burn 41-49 607 heavy basal burnt/heavy crown damage 50-57 608 heavy crown damage / heavy basal burnt SB -69 609 heavy ground burn /heavy basal burnt /crown damage 70-77 Plot H General Comments Photos 701 mixture of heavy to lite ground burn /significant crown damage 1-8 702 lite ground burn /thin crowns 9-16 703 near little creek /thin crowns 25-34 704 edge of wetland /ground burn 35-42 705 heavy crown damage /significant pitching 43-50 706 heavy burn 51-58 707 heavy burn /crown damage 59-66 708 significant crown & basal burn 67-74 709 over break chiniak river/fire skip/ crown damage 75.82 Plot p General Comments Photos 801 heavy burnt /heavy crown damage 1-8 802 lite ground burn /heavy crown damage 9-18 803 very thin crowns/ lite ground burn 19-26 804 heavy burnt /thin crowns scorched 27-34 805 lite ground burn /significant crown damage 35-42 806 ground burn /significant thin crowns 43-50 807 lite ground burn /scorched very thin crowns 51.58 808 heavy ground burn /significant crown damage 59-66 809 heavy crown damage 67-74 Page 16 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Appendix B Plot# General Comments Photo s 901 heavy ground burn /significant crown damage 1-8 902 significant crown damage /heavy scorched /lite ground burn 9.16 903 very thin crowns/scorched /lite ground burn /big Creek bottom 19-26 904 heavy ground burn /significant crown damage 27-34 905 edge of small stream /heavy burnt 35-42 906 heavy burnt/rock knob/significant crown damage 47.54 907 heavy burnt /significant crown damage /steep ground 55-62 908 lite ground burn /significant crown damage 63-70 909 lite ground bum /crown damage 71-78 Plot 9 General Comments Photo s 1001 heavy burnt /significant crown damage 1-8 1002 heavy ground burn /significant crown damage /steep side hill above chinlak river 9-16 1003 heavy burnt /significant crown damage/steep sidehlll 17.24 1004 heavy burnt /significant crown damage/steep sidehill draw 29-36 Page 17 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... 9 8 �� Pima sitchensis Appendix D Index of Species Information SPECIES: Picea sitchensis Il ITIN . 1 • a1 a.1 tis �. s1 UM 1.•'11-1 to 11 1 11 11 .t 11 �.. .• •1.r .r 1 . - t 11-1 Introductory SPECIES: Picea sitchensis AGENDA ITEM #1.b. AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Picea sitchensis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2015, September 251. ABBREVIATION PICSIT SYNONYMS : NO -ENTRY SCS PLANT CODE DISI COMMON NAMES Sitka spruce tideland spruce coast spruce yellow spruce silver spruce western spruce Menzies' spruce TAXONOMY : The scientific name of Sitka spruce is Picea sitchensis (Bongard) Carriers (Pinaceae) (213.,521. Species within the genus Picea form hybrid swarms at the interface of their ranges. Sitka spruce naturally hybridizes with white spruce (P. glauca) to produce Lutz spruce (Picea X lutzii Little) [22,21,23,55.]• It is often difficult to identify Picea X lutzii by morphological chacteristics in stands with low levels of introgression [211. Sitka spruce in plantations will also hybridize with Yezo spruce (Picea jezoensia), Serbian spruce IP. amorika), and Engelmann spruce (P. engelmannii) [22,23,241• LIFE FORM Tree FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS No special status hupdit%,%i .fs.fed.us/datahascircis/plums/ucc/picsiYill.himl[925R015 10:3127 AM) Page 101 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... Pica suchensls OTHER STATUS NO -ENTRY Appendix D llift 4:F41+U411OR WNW SPECIES: Picea sitchensis GENERAL DISTRIBUTION : Sitka spruce's natural range is a narrow strip of land along the northern Pacific coast from south-central Alaska to northern California. Its widest distribution (130 miles (210 km] inland) occurs in southwestern Alaska and northern British Columbia. Its southern boundary is defined by a disjunct population in Mendocino County, California (231 2A]. Sitka spruce has been extensively introduced into the British Isles (?i, 5-7 1 ECOSYSTEMS : FRES20 Douglas -fir FRES23 Fir - spruce FRES24 Hemlock - Sitka spruce FRES27 Redwood STATES : AK CA HI OR WA BC YT HIM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS : 1 Northern Pacific Border 2 Cascade Mountains 3 Southern Pacific Border KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS : K001 Spruce - cedar - hemlock. forest K002 Cedar - hemlock - Douglas -fir forest K006 Redwood forest K029 California mixed evergreen forest SAF COVER TYPES : 221 Red alder 222 Black, cottonwood - willow 223 Sitka spruce 224 -Western hemlock 225 Western hemlock - Sitka spruce 227 Western redcedar - western hemlock 228 Western redcedar 229 Pacific Douglas -fir 230 Douglas -fir - western hemlock 231 Port -Orford -cedar 232 Redwood SHM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES NO -ENTRY HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES : Sitka spruce is listed as a dominant overstory species in the following published classifications: Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington (15.]. Plant association and management guide: Siuslaw National Forest (27-). Preliminary classification of forest vegetation of the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska (9fil. IONS hup newscfs.fed.us/databawJfeis/plants/lredpiesiVall.hlm1J9,25;201510:32:27AMI Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Page 102 of 125 AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Picea silchenlis Appendix D SPECIES: Picea sitchensis WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE : Sitka spruce is the most important timber species in Alaska [,I). The wood, with its high strength to weight ratio, is valuable for use as turbine blades for wind -driven electrical generators, masts for sail boats, ladders, oars [241, boats, and racing sculls [`, I . Sitka spruce's high resonant quality makes it valuable in the manufacture of piano sounding boards and guitars. The wood from Sitka spruce is also used in saw timber, high-grade wood pulp, and plywood [3 _Ul. IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE : Sitka spruce forests in various phases of succession provide habitat, in many cases critical habitat, for a large variety of mammals, game and nongame birds, reptiles, and amphibians [1,1.%A$]. Its value as a browse species for large ungulates is poor [111, while it has fair to good value for some game birds [92]• PALATABILITY : Sitka spruce is slightly palatable to large ungulates. It is browsed only in the spring, and then only the new growth (—S, 111• In Alaska and British Columbia the needles comprise up to 90 percent of the winter diet of blue grouse [321. NUTRITIONAL VALUE NO -ENTRY COVER VALUE : Sitka spruce forests provide hiding and thermal cover for a large variety of mammals. Old-growth Sitka spruce forests in Alaska and British Columbia are critical winter habitat for the Sitka deer. Old growth provides thermal cover and acts as a snow screen, allowing easier access to browse species [ZA,.Ul. Sitka deer require large blocks of old growth from sea level to the alpine and subalpine environments for migrational movements from summer to winter range [511• Sitka spruce forests also provide habitat for Roosevelt elk, woodland caribou (L1, Alaskan brown bear, and mountain goat [321. Sitka spruce provides good nesting and roosting habitat for avifauna 13,5fi1• Snags and live trees with broken tops provide nesting habitat for primary and secondary cavity nesters 1221• The bald eagle uses primarily (greater than 90 percent) Sitka spruce for nesting trees on Admiralty Island [321, and also uses them as roosting trees to survey the incoming breakers for food [1]. The peregrine falcon in coastal British Columbia uses Sitka spruce for platform nesting and secondary cavity nesting (2). VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES t Sitka spruce is a pioneer species which colonizes glacial moraines as the glaciers retreat. On the Juneau Icefield, Sitka spruce has colonized "nunatacks" (rocky peaks) protruding through the icefield [fil• Sitka spruce also acted as an aggressive pioneer an uplifted terrain from the 1959 earthquake [3]. OTHER USES AND VALUES : Native Americans have used Sitka spruce for various purposes. The roots can be woven to produce baskets and rain hats. The pitch was used for calking canoes [a], for chewing, and medicinal purposes [321. Pioneers split Sitka spruce into shakes for roofing and siding (a]. Sitka spruce also has limited food value for humans, for the inner bark and young shoots may be eaten as emergency food. Tea can be made from the young shoots (A:1• In the first half of this century Sitka spruce provided most of the wood for structural components of World War I and II aircraft [5,511. More recently it has been used as the nose cones for missiles and space craft [521 OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS hOp:f/a��otfs.fed.uydamhasdfeis/plana/treclpicsiUull.hunl[9R52015 I OJ? 27 AMI Page 103 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Picea silchensis Appendix D Sitka spruce, as one of the most important timber species and components of old-growth habitat, has recently been the center of many management concerns. Proposals for changes in timber harvest areas and methods have been explored by Nyberg and others (331 and Schoen and Kirchhoff [51]. They provide in-depth information and management alternatives. Wildlife habitat: Even -aged management of the species results in reduced habitat for the black -tailed deer. Shrub fields created after clearcutting are of limited use to deer in the winter. The depth of snow accumulation is greater, and snow persists longer in the clearcuts, reducing the time available for browsing. The forage in clearcuts is less digestible than that grown in the "shade of the preharvest stands_ Also, the large amount of slash resulting from clearcutting old-growth Sitkaspruce impedes movement of large ungulates, especially during winter migration. Lastly, once the regeneration has reached canopy closure 120 to 30 years), the understory production is greatly reduced. for at least the next 100 years, compared to old-growth stands with their various stages of regeneration Alaback [21 studied ways to reduce the negative impact of clearcutting an Sitka deer. Thinning the stands prior to canopy closure (less than 25 yyears) seems to be the best method for areas already cut. Thinning to 12 x 12 feet (3.5 x 3.5 m) spacing results in the most diverse vegetation. Once canopy closure has occurred (greater than 30 years), uneven -aged management practices can result in the creation of gaps in the canopy, which in turn will allow for a more diverse understory (31• Damagingagents: Sitka spruce is susceptible to Sitka spruce weevil, or white pine weevil IPissodes strobi)), spruce aphid (Elatobium abietinum), spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis), and root rot by Armillaria millea and Heterobasidian annosum 124). The Sitka spruce weevil has such a detrimental effect on Sitka spruce in the lower portion of its range, from southern British Columbia to northern California, that Sitka spruce is not actively managed for regeneration there. The F1 generation of the hybrid, Lutz spuce, yields a tree 100 percent resistant to weevil attack, but growth rate is sacrificed. Back -crossing the F1 generation with Sitka spruce increases the growth rate, but up to 50 percent of the progeny are susceptible to weevil attack. [311• Also, although Lutz spruce is less susceptible to the Sitka spruce weevil, it is more susceptible than Sitka spruce to the spruce beetle (2%]. Sitka spruce is susceptible to wind throw, which can account for up to 80 percent of the mortality within stands. Regeneration from gap phase replacement, however, is rapid [.lal. Control: Chemical shrub control is often required to regenerate Sitka spruce successfully following harvest [1B,M . - BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS SPECIES: Picea sitchensis GENERAL BOTANICAL CtaLNCTERISTICS : Sitka spruce is a native, long-lived (greater than 600 years), evergreen, monoecious tree [23,56!`1• Female strobili are produced at the ends of primary branches near the top, while the male strobili are positioned lower in the tree on secondary branches [24]• Sitka spruce is the world's largest spruce. It can obtain heights of greater than 210 feet (65 m) with a d.b.h. of 16 feet (5 m) on better sites [23]. The base of the bole is buttressed (55]. When forest grown the bole is long and free of lower limbs [231. The root system of Sitka spruce is shallow andplatelike with long lateral roots with few branchings. On deep well -drained soils the root system may reach depths of 6.5 feet (2 m), especially on alluvial soils. Root grafting often occurs between roots of the same tree and adjacent trees [22,231 RAUNKSAER LIFE FORM Phanerophyte hitp://ssss e.fs.fcdus/dalubme/fcislplantsliredpicsiVoll.hlmli91252015 10:3127 AAII Page 104 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Picea silchensis Appendix D REGENERATION PROCESSES : Sitka spruce reproduces both sexually and asexually. Sexual maturity varies from 20 to 40 years. Dispersal of seeds is moisture dependent; when the ripe cones dry the seed is dispersed, and when the cones become wet again they close. To avoid loss of seed, cones should be collected soon after ripening [j,0,]. The seeds are small with a mean of 210,000 cleanedseeds per pound (467,000/kg) [2.Al. The germination rate is 54 percent, but this can be raised to 66 percent by moistening the germination medium with a 0.2 percent potassium nitrate (10403) solution MI. Germination is'epigeal. Sitka spruce seed will germinate on almost any substrate, although mineral soil or a mixture of mineral soil and organic soil are considered the best seedbeds 12A]• The "nurse log syndrome" has a key role in the regeneration of Sitka spruce in its wetter environs [12,15.,20.]• Germination and seedling survival are greater on rotting logs then on the forest floor. In a germination study less than 1 percent of the seeds in a moss mat germinated, and of these 30 percent were killed within a month by fungi [211. Nurse log syndrome results in a "colonnade" where there are several trees in a row with the roots supporting the bole in mid-air after the nurse log has rotted away 151. Seedling establishment and growth can be enhanced with the inoculation of the mycorrhizal fungi, Thelephora terrestris [10.,.44]. Sitka spruce shows strong trends in hardiness and growth in relation to geographic origination. These trends can be used to increase growth rate, but they can also have adverse effects on survival [22,2P]. Lester and others [2R] provide information on seed sources, outplanting results, hardiness, and growth rate trends. Sitka spruce reproduces asexually by layering. This usually takes place in moist areas or at timberline 122,24,31,55.1. Cuttings from current year's growth root more readily than older branches [24]. SITE CHARACTERISTICS : Sitka spruce occurs in the hypermaritime to maritime cool mesothermal climates [32,371• It occurs from shoreline to timberline in the northern portion of its range but is restricted to shoreline in the southern portion of its range [¢I• Sitka spruce grows best an sites with deep, moist, well -drained soils (22). It can tolerate the salty ocean spray of seaside dunes, headlands, and beaches, and the brackish water of bogs [34). Sitka spruce is limited to areas of high annual precipitation with cool, moist summers [.U,2.21. Soil: Sitka spruce has a stong affinity for soils high in calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus in the soil orders Entisols, Spodosols, Inceptisols, and Histosols. These soils are usually acidic with pH typically ranging from 4.0 to 5.7 [24). Elevation: Sitka spruce grows from sea level to timberline in Alaska (0 to 3,900 feet 10-1,109 m)) [55] with elevational limitations of 2,000 feet (600 m) in Washington and 1,500 feet (450 m) in Oregon and California [5]. Associates: In addition to those listed under Distribution and Occurrence, Sitka spruce's overstory associates include mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana), Alaska -cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensisl, lodgepole pine (Pinus contorts), and western white pine (P, monticola) [241• Understory associates include western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), false lily -of -the -valley (t4aianthemum dilatatum), stream violet (Viola glabella), evergreen violet (V. sempervirens), red huckleberry (Vaccinium parvifolium), devils club (Oplopanax horridus), salmanberry IRubus spectablis), and thimbleberry (R, parviflorus) [24]. SUCCESSIONAL STATUS : Sitka spruce is a shade -intolerant species [33] that is both a pioneer and a climax species 122]. Sitka spruce acts as an early pioneer on the undeveloped soils of landslides, sand dunes, uplifted beaches, and deg laciated terrain; it is a climax species in the coastal forests [221. SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT : Flowering and seed dispersal dates far Sitka spruce in Alaska and Oregon are as follows [22,54): hilp://snsiv.fs.rLd.us/dambocifeis/planuArcr/pitsit/ail.himll9P52015 1092:27 AMI Page 105 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Picea simhcnsis Appendix D Flowering Fruit Ripens Seed Dispersal Alaska April to June late Aug. to mid -Sept. Starts in Oct Oregon May Aug Oct. to Spring Seed dispersal is moisture dependent; when the ripe cones dry dispersal begins. The majority 113 percentl of seed are dispersed in the first 6 weeks; the remainder are released over the next year [221. FIRE ECOLOGY SPECIES: Picea sitchensis FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS Fire is not an important factor in the ecology of Sitka spruce [1]. Its thin bark and a shallow root system make it very susceptible to fire damage [9,fl1. Sitka spruce forests have a fire regime of long -interval 1150 to 350+ years) severe crown or surface fires which result in total stand replacement [AA]. FIRE REGIMES : Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FFTS homo pane under "Find Fire Regimes". POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY Secondary colonizer - offsite seed FIRE EFFECTS SPECIES: Picea sitchensis IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT The immediate effect of a coal to hot fire is dam-gge to the cambium layer, usually resulting in death of the tree 11M. DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT NO -ENTRY PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE Sitka sprue will invade a burned site via wind -dispersed seed from ad;acent unburned furests [A_91. Wind -dispersed seed travels 33 to 880 yards (30-792 m) from the parent tree [2AI. DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE UO -ENTRY FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS Arguments for and against slash burning in spruce forests recur throughout the literature. The strategy chosen will yield different results, depending on latitude. In the northern portion of Sitka spruce's range broadcast burning will favor Sitka spruce over western hemlock, but unless Sitka spruce is planted, seedling establishment will be delayed until the next seed crop [14,a,AP,937. Ruth and Harris (99] list the advantages of slash burning as follows: (1) Reduces fire hazard - (2) Destroys advance regeneration (3) Changes timber type This can have both positive and negative ramifications. It reduces competition with western hemlock, but growth of Sitka spruce seedlings in one study was reduced [147. In the southern portion of its range broadcast burning will favor the hupl)uia�.fs.fcd.us/dambudfcis/plantslvcclpicsit/ull.himl]9125/2015 10:32:27 Ah11 Page 106 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr. AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Picea sitcensis Appendix D establishment of Douglas -fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) mixed forest, while long-term fire exclusion will result in loss of Douglas -fir from the overstory. This is advantageous due to the increased stumpage value of Douglas -fir and the negative impacts of the spruce weevil [93,93]. In the coastal area of Alaska, broadcast burning has been recommended to reducethe negative aesthetic value of large quantities of slash from clearcut old-growth Sitka spruce forests [J. However, removal of the slash by burning in Sitka spruce forests is not required because of the to rapid decoy in that moist environment MI. Burning is not recommended on steep slopes and where water quality may be degraded REFERENCES SPECIES: Picea sitchensis REFERENCES : 1. Alaback, Paul B. 1982. Dynamics of understory biomass in Sitka spruce -western hemlock forests of southeast Alaska. Ecology. 6316): 1932-1948. [7305] 2. Alaback, Paul B. 1984. Plant succession following logging in the Sitka spruce -western hemlock forests of southeast Alaska. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-173. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 26 p. [7849] 3. Alaback, Paul B.; Herman, F. R. 1988. Long-term response of understory vegetation to stand density in Picea-Tsuga forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 18: 1522-1530. (6227] 4. Alden, John N. 1988. Species selection for forest development in Alaska. In: Slaughter, Charles W.; Gasbarro, Tony, ads. Proceedings of the Alaska forest soil productivity workshop: Proceedings of a workshop; 1987 April 28-30; Anchorage, AK. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-219. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 110-120. [5584] 5. Arno, Stephen F.; Hammerly, Ramona P. 1977. Northwest trees. Seattle, WA: The Mountaineers. 222 p. [4206] 6. Arno,Stephen F.; Hammerly, Ramona P. 1984. Timberline: Mountain and atctic forest frontiers. Seattle, WA: The Mountaineers. 304 p. [339] 7. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434] 8. Brown, Arthur A.; Davis, Kenneth P. 1973. Forest fire control and use. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. 686 p. [15993] 9. Campbell, R. Wayne; Paul, Marilyn A.; Rodway, Michael S.; Carter, Harry R. 1978. Tree -nesting peregrine falcons in British Columbia. Condor. 79(4): 500-501. [13724] 30. Coutts, M. P.; Nicoll, B. C. 1990. Growth and survival of shoots, roots, and mycorrhizal mycelium in clonal Sitka spruce during the first growing season after planting. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research. 20: B61-868. [12095] 11. Cowan, Ian McTaggart. 1945. The ecological relationships of the food of the Columbian black -tailed deer, Odocoileus hemionus columbianus (Richardson), in the c. forest region southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Ecological Monographs. 15(2): 110-139. [16006] 12. Deal, Robert L.; Oliver, Chadwick Dearing; Bormann, Bernard T. 1991. Reconstruction of mixed hemlock -spruce stands in coastal southeast Alaska. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 21: 643-654. [14673] 13. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905] 14. Feller, M. C. 1982. The ecological effects of slashburning with )nip:/hs,%istrs.fed.usrdainbaxlfeislPbnu/ucc/picsidalthtmt[9252Dt5 10:32:27 AMI Page 107 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Picts shchcnsis Appendix D particular reference to British Columbia: a literature review. Victoria, BC: Ministry of Forests. 60 p. [10470] 15. Franklin, Jerry F. 1988. Pacific Northwest forests. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Billings, William Dwight, ads. North American terrestrial vegetation. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press: 103-130. [13879] 16. Franklin, Jerry F.; Dyrness, C. T. 1973. Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-B. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 417 p. [961] 17. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998] 18. Gratkowski, H. 1917. Site preparation and conifer release in Pacific Northwest forests. In: Proceedings, 27th annual weed conference; [Date of conference unknown]; Yakima, WA. [Place of publication unknown]. [Publisher unknown]. 29-32. [17160] 19. Hanley, Thomas A.; Robbins, Charles T.; Spalinger, Donald E. 1989. Forest habitats and the nutritional ecology of Sitka black -tailed deer: a research synthesis with implications for forest management. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-230. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 52 p. [7509] 20. Harmon, Mark E. 1989. Retention of needles and seeds an logs in Picea sitchensis - Tsuga heterophylla forests of coastal Oregon and Washington. Canadian Journal of Botany. 67: 1833-1837. [7984) 21. Harmon, Mark E.; Franklin, Jerry F. 1989. Tree seedlings on logs in Picea-Tsuga forests of Oregon and Washington. Ecology. 70(1): 48-59. (130821 22. Harris, A. S. 1966. Effects of slash burning on conifer regeneration in southeast Alaska. Research Note NOR -18. Juneau, AK: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Forest Experiment Station. 6 p. [7304] 23. Harris, A. S. 1978. Distribution, genetics, and silvical characteristics of Sitka spruce. In: Proceedings, IUFRO Joint Meeting Workshop Parties; [Date of conference unknown]; Vancouver, BC. Volume 1. Victoria, BC: BC Ministry of Forestry, Information Service Branch: 95-122. [77851 24. Harris, A. S. 1990. Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr. Sitka spruce. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 260-267. [133891 25. Harris, John. 1983. Wildlife on managed forested lands. In: O'Loughlin, Jennifer; Pfister, Robert D., ads. Management of second -growth forests: - The state of knowledge and research needs: Proceedings of a symposium; 1982 May 14; Missoula, MT. Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station: 209-221. [7102] 26. Hawkes, B. C.; Feller, M. C.; Meehan, D. 1990. Site preparation: fire. In: Lavender, D. P.; Parish, R.; Johnson, C. M.: [and others], ads. Regenerating British Columbia's forests. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press: 131-149. [10712] 27. Hemstrom, Miles A.; Logan, Sheila E. 1986. Plant association and management guide: Siuslaw National Forest. R6 -Ecol 220-1986a. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 121 p. [10321) 28. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168) 29. Holsten, Edward H; Werner, Richard A. 1990. Comparison of white, Sitka, and Lutz spruce and hosts of the spruce beetle in Alaska. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research. 20: 292-297. [11042] 30. Hosie, R. C. 1969. Native trees of Canada. 7th ed. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Forestry Service, Department of Fisheries and Forestry. 300 p. [3375) 31. Hulten, Eric. 1968. Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 1008 p. [13403] hup://uisw.fs.fcSushlambmelfeWpiants/tnrJpicsiVall.hlml[9252O15 10:32:27 AM] Page 108 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Picca silchcnsis Appendix D 32. Klinka, K.; Feller, M. C.; Green, R. N.; [and others]. 1990. Ecological principles: applications. In: Lavender, D. P.; Parish, R.; Johnson, C. M.; [and others], eds. Regenerating British Columbia's forests. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press: 55-72. 1107101 33. Klinka, K.; Krajina, V. J.; Ceska, A.; Scagel, A. M. 1989. Indicator plants of coastal British Columbia. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press. 298 p. [107031 34. Krajina, V. J.; Klinka, K.; Worrall, J. 1982. Distribution and ecological characteristics of trees and shrubs of British Columbia. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia, Department of Botany and Faculty of Forestry. 131 p. [6728] 35. Kruckeberg, A. R. 1902. Gardening with native plants of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 252 p. 199801 36. Krygier, James T.; Ruth, Robert H. 1961. Effects of herbicides on salmonberry and on Sitka spruce and western hemlock seedlings. Weeds. 9131: 416-422. [66081 37. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 77 p. [13841 38. Lester, D. T.; Ying, C. C.; Konishi, J. D. 1990. Genetic control and improvement of planting stock. In: Lavender, D. P.; Parish, R.; Johnson, C. M.; [and others], eds. Regenerating British Columbia's Forests. Vancouver, SC: University of British Columbia Press: 180-192. [107151 39. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. (14961 40. Minore, Don. 1979. Comparative autecological characteristics of northwestern tree species --a literature review. Gen. Tech, Rep. PNW-87. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 72 p. [16591 41. Mitchell, Russel G.; Wright, Kenneth H.; Johnson, Norman E. 1990. Damage by the Sitka spruce weevil (Pissades strobi) and growth patterns for 10 spruce species 6 hybrids over 26 years in the Pacific Northwest. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-434. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 12 p. 115127] 42. Meehan, William R. 1974. The forest ecosystem of southeast Alaska: 4. Wildlife habitats. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-16. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 32 p. [134191 43. Nyberg, J. Brian; McNay P., Scott; Kirchoff, Matthew D.; [and others]. 1989. Integrated management of timber and deer: coastal forests of British Columbia and Alaska. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-226. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 65 p. [74681 44. Parminter, John. 1991. Fire history and effects on vegetation in three biogeoclimatic zones of British Columbia. In: Nodvin, Stephen C.; Waldrop, Thomas A., eds. Fire and the environment: ecological and cultural perspectives: Proceedings of an international symposium; 1990 March 20-24; Knoxville, TN. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE -69. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: 263-272. [166511 45. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [28431 46. Reynolds, Keith M. 1990. Preliminary classification of forest vegetation of the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-424. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, rarest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 67 p. [145811 47. Robuck, 0. Wayne. 1985. The common plants of the muskegs of southeast Alaska. Miscellaneous Publication/July 1985. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 131 p. 1115561 48. Ruth, Robert H. 1974. Regeneration and qrowth of west -side mixed hup9lmse.fs.fed.us/damhuc/leis/plamsltredpicsiJalLMml[9/152015 10:32:27 A1.11 Page 109 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Picca simlansis Appendix D conifers. In: Camer, Owen P., ed. Environmental effects of forest residues in the Pacific Northwest: A state -of -knowledge compendium. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-24. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific NorthwestForest and Range Experiment Station: K-1 to K-21. [6381] 49. Ruth, Robert H.; Harris, A. S. 1975. Forest residues in forests of the Pacific Northwest and Alaska --a state - w. recommendations for residue mgmt. Gen. Tech. Rep. OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, P Forest and Range Experiment Station. 52 p. [15125] 50. Safford, L. O. 1974. Picea A. Dietr. spruce. In: Schopmeyer, C. S., ed. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handb. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 587-597. [77281 51. Schoen, John W.; Kirchhoff, Matthew D. 1990. Seasonal habitat use by Sitka black -tailed deer on Admiralty Island, Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management. 54(3): 371-378. [119401 52. Smith, Kimberly G. 1980. Nongame birds of the Rocky Mountain spruce -fir forests and their management. In: DeGraa£, Richard M., technical coordinator. Management of western forests and grasslands for nongame birds: Workshop proceedings; 1980 February 11-14; Salt Lake City, UT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT -86. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 258-279. [179101 53. Stednick, John D.; Tripp, Larry N.; McDonald, Robert J. 1982. Slash burning effects on soil and water chemistry in southeastern Alaska. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 37(2): 126-128. [86061 54. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1982. National list of scientific plant names. Vol. 1. List of plant names. SCS -TP -159. Washington, DC. 416 p. [11573] 55. Viereck, Leslie A.; Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1972. Alaska trees and shrubs. Agric. Handb. 410. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 265 p. [68841 56. Wiens, John A. 1975. Avian communities, energetics, and functions in coniferous forest habitats. In: Smith, Dixie R, technical coordinator. Proceedings of the symposium on management of forest and range habitats for nongame birds; 1975 May 6-9; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO -1. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 226-265. [177731 , 57. Worrell, R.; Malcolm, D. C. 1990. Productivity of Sitka spruce in northern Britain. 1. The effects of elevation and climate. Forestry. 63(2): 105-118. 1117621 hup- �-Ts,fedmsldmabascfeisiplmus/Iree'picsiValthunl[g25 2015 10:32:27 Ah11 Page 110 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... Tree Physiology Appendix E Wa jig& MICHIGAN FORESTS FOREVER TEACHERS GUIDE AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Page 1 of I I Environment Section TREE PHYSIOLOGY THEENleaoWENT Recreation Section Products Section Balance Section Internet Links Quite a bit of time is spent on tree physiology, References p p y gy, which is key to understanding many of our Credits forest management practices, especially the concepts of shade tolerance and vegetation Index succession. Additionally, the topics of forest health, hydrologic cycle, and nutrient cycles are discussed. This is a fairly long section for several reasons. One, it provides the basis for much of what is addressed later in terms of forest management. Two, it has many connections to the Michigan Curriculum standards, particularly in science. Three, there are a lot of neat activities and observations associated with the topic. Concept List: Little Known or Interesting Factoids About Tree Physiology The Necessities of Life • Trees both produce AND consume oxygen. Tree Pads • Young forests capture more carbon hom the atmosphere than W forests. Photosynthesis and Respiration • Old forests have more stored carbon in the biomass than youngforests. Chlorophyll • The food that trees produce forthemseNes are sugars. Tree Growth • The purpose ofpholosynthesis is to capture and store energy. Fall Color Change • Green fight is the onylead of the visible light spectaun lhal plants can? use. Sunlioht • The timing ofAulumn color change is largely tnnlraferd by lengthening nights. Environmental Factors • Confers lose needles each heli, just the same as broad -leaf Imes, Tree Regeneration Strategies • Tmesgmw TWOdrrgs each year, am In?hespdog andanotherdurirg the summer. Longevity • Swamp bees donfnecessadlyprelerswamps. Winter Adaptations • Tree species have highly variable requirements for* 1, nutrients, and moisture. • Oceans produce mora oxygen and store more carbon than forests. Some Important Terms • Photosynthesis • Annual Rings • Respiration • Springwood 8 Summenvood • Oxygen • Cellulose • Carbon Dioxide • Mywrrhizae • Trophic Level • Producer • Food Chain • Consumer • Chlorophyll • Glucose • Anthocyanin • Shade Tolerance • Carotenoid • Crown • Abscission Layer • Canopy • Cambium • Compartmentalization • Merislem The Necessities of Life The following is brief discussion of each of six key requirements for trees. More detail of some topics is found later in this guide. http://mff.dsisd.net/EnvironmentrrreePhys.htm Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... 11/18/2015 Page 111 of 125 AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Tree Physiology Page 2 of I I Appendix E 1. Sugars supplied by photosynthesis. Air and water are chemically recombined to form glucose, which stores energy captured from the sun. Oxygen is a byproduct. _ 2. Water Is required for most metabolic activities and serves as a vehicle to carry materials through a tree. A large tree may move as much as 50-100 gallons of water on a hot summer day. 3. Nutrients. It's not how much of a particular nutrient exists in the environment, it's a matter of how available the nutrient is to the tree. For example, the atmosphere is largely composed on nitrogen, but trees can only use nitrogen in fortes that have been altered by soil bacteria and other organisms. The major chemical elements used by plants are: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, sulfur, calcium, iron, and magnesium. You might be able to remember this by a jingle formed using the abbreviations for these elements: C H O P K N S Ca Fe Mg... "see hopkins cafe, might good." - 4. Hormones and enzymes. These chemicals are critical in the controlling the timing and activity of physiological processes. They are usually produced in the roots or leaves, We don't often think of plants having "hormone" deficiencies, but they are critical to the survival of any organism, including trees. 5. Mycorrhizae. Pronounced "my -core -Hl -zee, this a group of beneficial fungi associated with most tree roots. It represents an ecologically symbiotic relationship where the fungi receive food from the tree and the trees receive greatly enhanced nutrient and water absorption. Mycorrhizee will also protect tree roots from other invading fungi. There tends to be very specific species relationships between fungus and tree. 6. Environmental factors. A tree needs an appropriate mix of precipitation, temperature, sunlight, and soils in order to thrive. These factors need to occur at the right time. Each tree species has a different set of environmental requirements. Changing climate will lead to changing environmental factors, which can lead to changes in forest ecosystems. Activity Suggndoru 1 PLTEnvTmlirlbem limb PLTSollsbdn thtchim Tms To Soer Relum lm TOP of Daae. PLTavrtamk Duos Tree Parts The parts and structure of a tree has obvious components and some not so obvious components. What makes a tree a tree? First, a tree has all the characteristics of green plants. Beyond that, a tree is a tall plant with woody tissue. It has the capability to "push" its crown (the primary location for photosynthesis) above other vegetation competing for light. Also, most people don't readily connect trees with having flowers but they do, although our conifers (pines, spruces, fire, etc.) don't have true Rowers with petals. The reproductive structures of each species are particularly unique and are used more than any other structure to categorize trees. This categorization is called taxonomy. The tree identification section talks more about taxonomy. A tree has a dilemma in terms of gathering its resources. It has a distinct light -gathering advantage of having its leaves high above other plants, but there is the problem of getting water and soil nutrients to the upper tissues. The microenvironment in the upper canopy is also rather hostile to sensitive tissues. Al the other end of the tree, the roots are dependent upon materials produced way up in the crown. This problem, of course, is solved by the structure of the tree trunk, or bole, a most distinctive feature of trees. http://mff.dsisd.nei/EnvironmenuTreePhys.htm Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... Dermidon of a Use., A woody perennial plant, typically large and with a wellderined stem or stems carrying a more or less dermile crown - note, sometimes defined as attaining a minimum diameter of 5 inches and minimum height of 15 feet at maturity with no branches within 3 feel of the ground. -SociefyofAmerican Foresters, 1998 h..myn I r-a,n TREE �.� "DDOIGE" rr all 11/18/2015 Page 112 of 125 Tree Physiology Appendix E AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Paye 3 of I I Most of a tree trunk Is dead woody tissue and serves only to support the weight of the crown. The very outside layers of the tree consists of bark. Underneath the bark is a cork cambium layer that generates new bark. Under the cork cambium lies a thin band of phloem, which is living tissue that transports materials from the crown to the roots. Under the phloem is another vascular cambium zone that produces both new phloem cells and new xylem cells. The wider band of xylem, or sapwood, transports water to the crown, but is not necessarily living. The innermost portion of the trunk is non -living heartwood, which is a repository for many waste products of the bee's living tissue. Only a thin band around the trunk, roughly a centimeter wide, is living tissue. Each year, a tree grows a pair of annual rings (TWO rings each yearl). In the spring, the usually wider and thinner -walled layer grows. It is called "springwood". In the summer, through about mid-July, a usually darker and thicker -walled layer Is produced. It is called "summerwood". Annual rings are typical in temperate forest trees and tropical forest trees that have regular, annual dry seasons. In tropical humid rainforests, trees grow continually and do not have rings. The oldest portion of a tree is at the bottom and on the Inside. Parts Lisr Without going into a lot detail, important parts of a tree are: MON MCF Benchmarks � S11' I.2ms2 btip://mff.dsisd.nei/EnvironmenVTreePhys.htm Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... PLTT SCmWeran PLT Tm CeoAras II/18/'_015 Page 113 of 125 Leaves Broad -leaf or needles, the primary site of photosynthesis and the production of hormones and other chemicals Support structure for leaves, flowers, and fruits. Arrangement varies Twigs & from species to species by growth strategy. Can sometimes have Branches photosynthetic tissues. Two kinds of growth [issue, at the twig lips and cambium under the bark. The upper region of the tree made up of leaves, twigs, branches, Crown flowers, and fruits. Crowns of many trees are collectively called the "canopy". May have both female & male parts, or only one or the other. Some Flowers trees are either all female or all male (e.g. aspen). Flowersmay have a full complement of flower parts, or may be missing certain elements. Conifers do not have petals and associated structures. Fruits & All trees have seeds. Most trees have seeds Inside fruits. Most fruits Seeds are NOT edible, but many are, such as apples, cherries, nuts, etc. Most definitions of trees Include a "single bole" concept, but many of our Trunk or tree species sometimes occur with multiple stems. The main functions Bole of a trunk are transport and support. The trunk has growth tissue called cambium. A highly variable tree part. The main function is to protect the sensitive Bark living tissues from weather and predation (by animals, insects, fungi, etc.) Roots serve two main functions; collection of nutrients and water, and anchoring the tree. Roots also have growth tissue, bark, and wood. Roots Like twigs and branches, roots have two kinds of growth tissue, at the twig tips and cambium under the bark. Fine mat hairs are where absorption occurs. MON MCF Benchmarks � S11' I.2ms2 btip://mff.dsisd.nei/EnvironmenVTreePhys.htm Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... PLTT SCmWeran PLT Tm CeoAras II/18/'_015 Page 113 of 125 Tree Physiology Appendix E Return to TOP of Page. Photosynthesis and Respiration AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Page 4 of I I All trees (most plants) both photosynthesize and respire. Photosynthesis is a process unique to green plants and produces sugars, which are "tree food." Animals only respire and cannot produce their own food. That's why plants are called "producers" and animals are called "consumers." Photosynthesis can be visualized in a couple ways. • Sugars produced are analogous to a "solar battery." The sugar is a chemical way to store energy for future use (metabolism). • Trees produce their own food. We call "tree food" sugar. These sugars are not usually of the chemical structure of refined sugar and don't usually taste sweet, but the basic organic components are similar. The basic chemical formula for photosynthesis is: Inputs: 6 carbons, 24 oxygens, 24 hydrogens Outputs: 6 carbons, 24 oxygens, 24 hydrogens Note: Inputs and outputs must balance in a chemical equation. In other words, what goes in, must come cull Energy is stored in the bonds of sugar molecules such as "glucose" and "fructose" Oxygen is a by-product of photosynthesis. The oxygen molecules produced by photosynthesis are not necessarily the same oxygen molecules the plants use for respiration. These sugars are later broken apart and the released energy drives a variety of metabolic actions. The process of breaking down these sugars is called "respiration." It is the same process that animals (and people) use when they respire (not to be confused with "breathing"). So, either the plant uses its own stored sugars, or some animal (or decomposer) consumes the plant, and uses the stored sugars. In either case, the sugars are valued chemicals because they contain energy, as well as important elements (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen). CrH1206+(6)02 (6)CO2 + (6)H20 (6)CO2+(6)H20 CsH1208+(6)02 ENERGY EIN Carbon Dioxide+Wafer+ENERGY �—� Glucose+Oxygen Summary equation lorrespirafion Summary equation forphotosynthesis Energy is stored in the bonds of sugar molecules such as "glucose" and "fructose" Oxygen is a by-product of photosynthesis. The oxygen molecules produced by photosynthesis are not necessarily the same oxygen molecules the plants use for respiration. These sugars are later broken apart and the released energy drives a variety of metabolic actions. The process of breaking down these sugars is called "respiration." It is the same process that animals (and people) use when they respire (not to be confused with "breathing"). So, either the plant uses its own stored sugars, or some animal (or decomposer) consumes the plant, and uses the stored sugars. In either case, the sugars are valued chemicals because they contain energy, as well as important elements (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen). CrH1206+(6)02 (6)CO2 + (6)H20 ENERGY Glucose +Oxygen Carbon Dioxide +Wafer+ENERGY OUT Summary equation lorrespirafion What does a tree use its pholosynthate for (glucose and fructose) in addition to energy storage and subsequent release? Cell walls are made of cellulose (CsH,oOs). Cellulose shows in many plant parts in combination with other molecular elements. It is not only vital to the tree, but is also a very hup://mff.dsisd.net/EnvironmentfrreePhys.htm Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... 11 Apply the Concept: The '10% mk of thumb.' u able to Tx' about 10% of the solar Ass, homwo. 'Fixing'means conver0ng solar energy into chemical smigy (sugars). Organisms that consume plants, are able to 11/18/2015 Page 114 of 125 Tree Physiology Appendix E AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Page 5 of I I Important material for people (wood, lumber, fuel, fibers, extract about 10% of the energysfored in the chemical extracts, energy, etc.). plant. Organisms that consume other • Production of carbohydrates such as sugars (Ce1-112O6), consumers can extract only about 10% ofthe energy stated in thebprey. These levels of starches (CcH1005), vegetable ivory (form of hemicellulose), energy consumption are called Yrophic pectins (for jellies, jams), gums (used in many products, levels.'Enetgy Now through an ecosystem including food products). (large or smalo is a key life process. Threads I • Many fats and oils are common plant products (some of which ofenergy transfer are called Yoodchains," Food chains also include the Iransferof come from trees). These are compounds of mostly carbon, chemicals other than sugar. Many nuldenls, hydrogen, and oxygen, but with lots more molecules of each. amino acids, and other compounds are • Proteins are formed when the C, N, 0 elements are combined digested and recombined by consumers along anyparNcufartood chain. with nitrogen, sulfur, and sometimes phosphorus. Certain be a mntdbulorto tree stress, which can lead Apply the Concept., Crown size and proteins used by animals (aril people) can only be obtained by ingesting plant products. pholos nthesis • There are numerous secretions produced by trees (and other Ag the leaves and branches of a tree are plants) that are important to people, such as clove oil, cedar oil, collectively caged the 'crown."Alf the clowns resins, pitch, gums, balsam, camphor, natural rubber, pigments, of forest are cagedivelycalled the canopy.' drugs (legal and illegal), etc. As forests age and uses grow, clowns begin A note about energy allocation within trees. Energy is nal a limitless to touch each olherand the forest canopy closes. Mostofthe bee crowns will be unable resource for trees. A tree will typically move energy according to to grow as rapxllyas it (heyhadhee space to these priorities. As energy In the form of glucose becomes limited, a occupy. The photosynthelk: capacity wID be tree will begin to reduce resources spent beginning with the lowest spread among a greaternumberoffnes. That priority. As you can see, a tree with a diminishing crown will become means less photosynthesis per tree, which more vulnerable to insects and diseases rather quickly. That's one translates into slowergrowfh. Slowgmwth can reason why foresters are so keen to maintain a vigorous growing be a mntdbulorto tree stress, which can lead environment. to tree health problems. Foresters understand v. Maintain all parts. roots how different forests grow in different ways They can recognize a forest that is too fineres anon 2. Produce fine roots and leaves. ctowdedendprescdbe a thinning, where 3. ExtendProducbranchflowers and seed. A. branches end roots. some trees are removed so (hat others may Store a 5. Store energy rich chemicals. grow better. S. Add wood to stem, roots and branches. In addition to channeling mon: growth onto a 7. Create anti -pest chemicals for defense. fewer number of trees, thinning the canopy can have a vwy positive impact on the Acttveysuggesaons urdarslory. More light to the forest floor wig PtT AhPlanu sl mulale the reganomtkm of Imes and nt.Tsw11uh1 s shades ofGrUnil promote more vegetation in the underdory layers of a forest. More vegetation in the understory, creates more vertical structure, which often leads to greater species diversily in the forest. �® n _ ' .111.1.m .IpS 1.ms3, .III..m .III..m MCF Benchmarks Return to TOP of Dace. ChloroohWl Chlorophyll is the chemical compound where solar energy (light) is captured andphotosynthesis happens. Chlorophyll is continuously produced and broken down during the growing season. The heart of the chlorophyll compound is a magnesium molecule. The magnesium molecule is bonded to many molecules orhydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen. Cs5H7zOsh4Md Chlorophyll "a",one of several forms of chlorophyll http://mff.dsisd.neUEnvironmenVrreePhys.htm 11/18/2015 Page 115 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Tree Physiology Appendix E Page 6 of ; There are different kinds of chlorophyll that absorb different colors in the light spectrum- The only color that is pretty much useless to Erpedment Suggestion: Growplants plants is green, which is why plant tissues containing chlomphyll (barns, peas, fast-growing plants) in appear green. It's the color that isreflected back into the contanersofddferentligtd. Transparent environment. The process orpholosynthesis is very complicated and Mastic wrap covering containers wdl fillerfight driven by a series of enzymes. Enzymes function within fairly narrow spectra. Compare gmwlh rales olplants. temperature windows. Within these temperature windows, heat accelerates photosynthesis to a certain point and cold slows it down. Outside the temperature window, photosynthetic activity drops o/, most quickly with hot temperatures. pq Acriviny SuggsiVan MCF Benchmarks n"� 5.111.1.rnO S.111.2.rnsI 111.5.ms3 PUSunti018Shades ofGma Return to TOP of naae. Tree Growth So, photosynthesis produces all this glucose... what then? Essentially, the energy in glucose is used by trees (and most other living things) to drive metabolic processes that produce tissues and maintain lite functions. Keep in mind that this whole thing called life is a big solarpowered system! A free will draw nutrients and minerals from the soil, break them down and put them back together to form compounds and chemicals that we recognize as a tree. The most common material made by a free is cellulose."Cellulose is a complex sugar that is the main component of wood and many other plant tissues. It's also an extremely useful material for lots of human uses, such as food products, paper, strengthener in plastics and concrete, clothing, and other things. Wood is the answer to the tree challenge of pushing a crown as high as possible fa obtain the best light - capturing position as possible, while maintaining a connection with water and nutrient supplies in the soil. Where does a tree grow? In three places. At the twig lips (meristem). At the root tips (meristem). Around the outside of the trunk, branches, and roots One region of (issue expansion or tree growth is at the lips twigs and mots, called the merislem." This is unspecialize that can fort wood, buds, or flowers. Each year, trees will twigs and roots, produce flowers and fruit, and grow new b meristem and newly produced tissues are rich with nuhienl often the target of aback by diseases, insects, and animals example, are Michigan's most significant browser. In areas populations, deer can destroy years of growth on small trei entirely eliminate regeneration. Most of a tree trunk, branch, or mol is dead wood. The living part is only a LT4 w narrow band on the outside edge. This living layer is produced by thin bands of regenerating (issue called "cambium."Cambium produces new wood on the inside and new bade on the outside. The cambium grows only from they inside out, not up or down the length of a trunk, branch, ormot. For awhile, the new wood and bark are living. The wood actively transports many materials up and down the tree and performs other functions. After the wood r»w, dies, it still serves as a transport mute for several years. Eventually, even�i :," TREE that function is diminished and the wood serves primarily as structural N G0010 support. litip:Hmff.dsisd.net/EnvironmenareeP[iys.htm 11 / 18/2015 Page 116 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Tree Physiology _ Appendix E Page 7 of I I Each year the cambium produces TWO distinct rings of tissue. In the spring, a layer of thinner -walled cells are grown. In the summer, a layer of thicker -celled, sometimes larger cells are grown. The layers are called "sprfngwood"and "summerwood,"respectively. When counting the age of free "cookie,"either the springwood orsummerwood rings can be counted, but don't count both (unless you divide your sum by Iwol). Most people count the typically narrower and darkersummerwood. Tree such as oaks, ashes, and all the conifers produce fairly distinct rings which are easy to count. Other hees, such as aspens, red maple, and birch have less distinct rings. Foresters can count rings without cutting a tree down. A tool called an "increment borer" will extract a thin wood core from the tree, which can be used to age the tree. nT AcUvrly Suagesdana HCF Benchmarks ' • III$. .1.ms2. .1115 t.ms3• .IIS 1.5.ms3 PUTm Cookies Mr,PLT How Plants Gm w _ E PLTEY Tm ForltseH PLTHowab h Your TmT PLTTrwe 1a TraubM Returnto TOP of nage. Why do leaves chance colors In the Autumn? The short answeris that chlorophyll production drops -off as night length increases. The green part of the light spectrum is no longer reflected and other compounds, chemicals called anthocyanins" (reds) and "carotenolds" (yellows), become the dominant pigments in the leaves. The longer answer involves discussions of changing day lengths and weather, and strategies dealing with nutrient loss with the dropping of leaves. What is the story behind Autumn leaf fall? Project: Have kids collect different colored leaves in the to Categorize leaves by species and color. The same species may have many color colors, especialty red maple. Also, have kids record the dales when Imes at home, at schod, or another selected place begin to charge color. Make notes by species and see if anypadams can be observed. 11 would be interesting to have a The purpose of Autumn leaf fall is to prepare for winter dormancy. 'sisler'schoolin a different pad of the state to The coli temperatures prevent trees and plants from functioning in at compare color change with. least three ways. Water would freeze in the plant tissues, causing cell mpfure. Waterin the uppersoil layers often freezes, making absorption impossible. Lastly, the low temperatures are far outside the operating windows for the enzymes that control a tme's metabolic processes, such as photosynthesis and respiration. To avoid these environmental limitations, Ices prepare for dormancy in the Autumn. Toes drop leaves because they are loo difficult to "vinlerize"(unlike most conifers that have strategies to maintain their gneen parts during the winter and needles have a much different structure than broad leaves). Or, in the case of conifers, the needles that have grown rid after two to three years, no longer receive as much light, and are shed each Aulumn. However, dropping tons of biomass per acre presents the problem of losing significant amounts of valuable nutrients. Much of the sugars and valuable nutrients are resorbed from the leaves, but the annual leaf drop still means the loss of a lot of good "stuff "In our north temperate climates, dmpped leaves become part of the "organic layer on the surface of the soil, to be recycled (in part) by decomposers. There are two components influencing the Autumn color display, the timing and the intensity. The timing is usually controlled by lengthening nights and the intensity is strongly influenced by weather. The most dependable seasonal environmental facforis the change in daylight, or more accurately, the lengthening dark period. Such things as rainfall or temperature might fool" a tree into retaining leaves too long. For this reason, the timing of leaf -drop is regulated by the consistent movement of the Earth around the Sun. However, a late spring or extremely dry summer can postpone the response to lengthening nights by a week or two. Just "when"a tree begins to tum color varies from species to species, and geographically from north to south. In our northern forests, black ash is the first to change color. Tamarack (a needle -bearing free) is the last. The intensity or brilliance of the color change is influenced by weather conditions during the period of declining chlorophyll production. A series of sunny days and coot nights (above freezing) result in a more colorful display. hltp://m1T.dsisd.net/Env ironmenl/TreePhys.hlm Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... 11/18/2015 Page 117 of 125 AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Tree Physiology Appendix E Page 8 of I I - The warm days increase production of both sugars and anlhocyanin pigments. Sugars 'stranded"in the leaf and greater concentrations of anthocyanins bring out the scadels and reds, especially the deep purple of northern red oak. Carotenoids yield the yellow and golden colors but tend to remain at fairly constant concentrations regardless of weather. So, how might weather affect the fall colors? • Warm Autumn weather will generally reduce the color quality. • Moist soils following a good growing season contribute to better displays. • A few warm, sunny days and cool nights (at the right time) will increase brilliance. • Droughts will usually result in poorer displays. What causes the leaves to actually fall off? Wind, most commonly. As nights lengthen, a layerof cells forms in the leaf stem near the twig, called the 'abscission layer"Abscission means cuffing orsevering. This layerblocks trensterofmaterials to and from the leaf The abscission layer also makes a weakened connection. Eventually, wind, rain, snow, or animals will knock the leaf from the twig. 7 MCF Benchmarks �5.111.2.ms1, 5.111.2.ms3 Return to TOP of aaae. Sunfloht and Tolerance of Shade !Ys commonly known that trees and plants need sunshine to live. However, not all trees need the same amounts of sunlight. Trees that require high amounts of sunlight are sensitive to shade. Foresters call this sensitivity'shade toferance'orjust 'tolerance' The shade tolerance of some tree species will vary with age. Tree species such as aspen, cherry, paper birch, jack pine, and red pine require lots of sun and am not tolerant of shade. That's part of the mason stands of these species lend to be all about the same age. Seeds of these species that germinate under a canopy of shade do not survive. Other tree species are more tolerant of shade, such as sugar maple, beech, balsam fir, hemlock, and cedar. They can survive as seedlings or saplings under a fairly heavy canopy of shade for many years. When exposed to light, the small trees (not always young trees!) can quickly grow to take advantage of the new light regime. AcavitySugerseon r ELTStansatfall Relative Sunlight Requirements For Representative Tree Species PaperBkch Tamarack �'---• �--' �-- • � Q Q..Q. Jack Pine --.� ouakirig Aspen Sit /a [p.::Q. Red Ptire -- - ---- RedMapH! Red Oak ��,_�•i Wldfe Pine YeNawBkch BW1M�e ��.i SFpryilce Sugar Maple Basswood Cedar --' There are a number of tree species that fall into the moderately tolerant category, such as red oak, red maple, yellow birch, white ash, white pine, and white spruce. The may a61e to grow under the light canopy of an aspen or paperbirch stand, but would not be very successful under the shade of a maple -beech -basswood stand. Shade tolerance is key component of forest management systems. http://mff.dsisd.net/Environment/TreePliys.litm ronment/TreePliys.litm 11/18/2015 Page 118 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr. AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Tree Physiology Page 9 of I I Appendix E MM- i Acgvlty Suggntion t.1CF8 Ill..m 2 PLT Sunlight a Shades of Green Return to TOP of pM. Other Environmental Factors There are many environmental factors, both Irving and not living, that influence the growth of frees. This guide has already discussed some of them, such as light, nutrients, and temperature. Many of these factors interact with other. That's pad of the reason why forest management can be complex. Tree adaptation to various environmental factors runs along gradients. Some free species are more sensitive to a particular gradient than others, Rainfall or Precipitation Average annual rainfall varies across a wide geographical area. Some tree species can survive with less annual precipitation. As you move north and west, rainfall declines, and so do the number of tree species. Mom locally, available water may vary with micnuites. The south sides of slopes will be drier, so will a sandy plain or areas with bedrock close to the surface. Sol/ Vartabilitv Scientists have identified over 475 soil types in Michigan. It stands to reason that different tree species have preferences for certain types of soil. Red pine andjack pine are well-known for (heir ability to grow well on sandier, poorer soils where most other frees grow poody. Sugar maple and basswood prefer richer soils with lots of nutrients. Other species, such as bur oak and quaking aspen grow well on a wide variety of soils. This variability is largely related to the amount of available nutrients in a soil, the nutrient demand of a particular species, and a tree's ability to extract those nutrients. Moisture This is related to both rainfall and soils. The amount of available moisture varies during the year. High moisture levels during the dormant season will not help trees. Or usually hurt (hem. Saturated conditions from spring runoff or flooding does not hurt most trees because they are not actively growing. Some tree species are more tolerant of shod periods of flooding during the growing season, such as bur oak or si/vermaple. Oddly enough, white cedar is quite sensitive to rapid changes in moisture, either welter or drier. Northern swamp tree species grow on small, dry microsiles. They don't usually grow in the water. Biotic Factors These are the living parts of an ecosystem that trees interact with. Otherplants will impact forests. Insects and diseases play a major role in forests. Animals like white-tailed deer, porcupines, and squirrels also have prominent rates. Not all of these impacts are negative. Many are beneficial. Insects pollinate tree flowers. Soil animals loosen soil. Birds eat lots of insects. And of course, humans manage forests for a wide variety of reasons. MVcorrhizae Pronounced "my -core -Hl -zee'; these are beneficial fungi to trees. The fungi are associated with tree mots in a symbiotic relationship. That's where both partners benefit from each other. The mycorrhizae increase a tree's ability to absorb wafer and nutrients. The tree supplies the mycorrhizae with a share ofphotosynthate. Sometimes, species ofmychorrizee are only associated with a particularspecies of tree. The lack of proper mycoahizae in the soil can prevent a tree from growing well, or maybe from surviving at all. It may be one of the factors that limit Ines to a certain range. Scientists are leaming mora about these special fungi. MCF Benchmarks L'If 5.111.3.ms2 htip://mff.dsisd.net/EnvironmenuTreePhys.htm Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AtlNky suggnaan PtT Plent A ire 11/18/2015 Page 119 of 125 Tree Physiology Appendix E Return to TOP of Page. Tree Regeneration Strategies Then: are four ways Michigan frees regeneration themselves. • Seeds • Root Suckers • Slump Sprouts • Vegetative Layering AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Page 10 of I I All trees can reproduce by seeds. Each species has a unique set of requirements for seed production and germination. Seed dispersal strategies vary widely, from wind -driven seed to seeds carded by certain species of animals. Sprouts and suckers are similar, in that dormant buds "come alive" to form now shoots of parent frees. Sprouts are shoots from stumps orthe base ore tree. Suckers are shoots that originate from buds on the root systems. Often times, sprouts and suckers will not grow until the parent tree dies or becomes very sick. The buds are held in dormancy by hormones produced in the leaves. When these hormone levels drop below a certain point, the dormant buds will grow. Vegetative layering is uncommon, occurring mostly in white cedar and Canada yew (which most would not consider a free!). When branches or stems come in contact with the soil, cambium tissue sometimes form roots. In this way, former branches of fallen cedar might become trunks of several 'now' trees. Return to TOP of Pane. Tree Longevity Trees do not live forever, therefore cannot be preserved."A forest condition, or forest type might be preservable (if managed), but not individual trees. While people know that all living organisms eventually die, often times this is not taken Info account when people consider forests. Tree longevity varies from about 70 years to over 1000 years, depending upon the species. Most frees do not live past 50 years (or 10 years, for that matter), if you consider attrition from the time of germination. Short-lived species tend to be successional "pioneers", or trees that first colonize an unforested site. Aspens, paper birch, cherries, jack pine are examples of shod -lived tree species. They also fend to be intolerant of shade. Long-lived tree species tend to be more shade tolerant, occupy later stages of succession, and employ more "conservative"survival strategies. Sugar maple, basswood, beech, and white cedar are good examples. Note: "Succession"is explained in another place in this guide and is one of the most important concepts in forest ecology. Most Common Michigan Tree Species (by volume) and Their Expected Lifespans (in years) Note: Maximum lifespans may exceed the ages listed. Sugar Maple 200-300 Balsam Fr 70-100 Red Maple 125-150 White Oak 400.500 Quaking Aspen 60-90 Eastern Hemlock 400.500 Cedar 400£00 Jade Pine 60-100 Northam Red Oak 200.300 Yellow Birch 200-300 Red Pine 200.250 Black Cherry 150-200 Bigtoolh Aspen 75-100 While Ash unavailable Basswood 125-175 American Beech 300-400 Paper Bieck 70-100 While Spruce 150-200 Ite Pine 250-300 Black Spruce 200-250 lilip://mff.dsisd.net/Environment/TrecPliys.litin Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... 11/18/2015 Page 120 of 125 Tree Physiology Appendix E Winter Adaptations of Trees AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Page I I of I I Trees must have adaptations to survive the cold and drying conditions of winter. Trees cannot change their location or behavior like animals can so they must rely on physiological and structural adaptations. The height advantage of trees becomes a liability in the winter, as tissues are exposed to the weather. There are four basic strategies that bees employ. 1. Eitherleaf drop or adaptations for leaf retention. 2. A physiological acclimatization process. 3. Resolution of water issues. 4. Methods of reducing mechanical damage. Broadleaf trees (hardwoods) drop their leaves during the winter, avoiding the problems of maintaining foliage in cold and dry conditions. Conifers (softwoods) retain foliage and have special adaptations in order to do so (better slomale control and a waxy coaling called cutin). All trees go through an acclimatization process. Like leaf drop, the process is initiated by changes in pholopedod and is controlled by hormones and other chemicals. The process also exploits the physical properties of water. Winter conditions make finding sources of liquid water and transporting water a challenge. Waferlossis minimized in several ways. Water can be obtained from the ground, within the free, orfmm the subnivean (under snow) micre-environment. Conifers have special cell adaptations to facilitate water transport whenever temperatures allow it. Snow and ice accumulation can cause breakage, especially under windy conditions. Conifers have growth patterns that minimize the chances of damage occurring. Dramatic loss in vegetation (rem animal consumption increases pressure on woody (issues, especially foliage, buds, and bark. Browse damage can be significant in many regions of Michigan. Lastly, pollutants from highways, particularly road salts and exhaust, can damage Imes, especially those more vulnerable to these chemicals. Click het fora more detailed explanation of winter adaptations of trees. T MCF 5.111.5.m0 Return to TOP of oaoe. IMILgIl Ogg This websife was developed and created by Michioan State University Extension for the teachers of the State of Michigan. The websile is maintained by the Delta-Schoolcrah • Independent School District in support of the Michigan Forests Forever CD-ROM from the Michigan Forest Resource Alliance. Page Name: EnvironmenNTreePhys.htm Please provide comments to Bill Cook: cookwKiilmsu.edu or 786.1575 881,140 http://mff.dsisd.net/EnvironmentrrreePhys.htm 11/18/2015 Page 121 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Appendix F Revised Scope of Work for proposals to provide Fire Damage Assessment on lands owned by the Kodiak Island Borough. (11/24/2015 by Duane Dvorak, Kodiak Island Borough Resource Management Officer) The Kodiak Island Borough suffered substantial Bre damage to a stand of5itka Spruce Forest of approximately 600 acres near the unincorporated community of Chiniak on Kodiak Island (ADL 59078). The Kodiak Island Borough would like to obtain a fire damage assessment for this tract to identify the extent of damage: 1. Percentage of Spruce trees that suffered substantial crown damage as a direct result of the fire event; 2. Percentage of Spruce trees that suffered substantial fire damage at the base or over the root system; 3. Percentage and location of areas within the property that may have escaped substantial fire damage; 4. Other observations that the consultant believes to be relevant, in their professional opinion, after reviewing the site. The Kodiak Island Borough is requesting a fire damage assessment only with no quantitative analysis of harvestable timber or computation of economic value. In addition to the percentages identified above, it would be beneficial to prepare a map showing the varying degrees of damage on the site in a visual manner for ease of conveying the results. It is not expected that the proposer will conduct a formal cruise in accomplishing the above tasks, but may use a combination of first hand site observations and other indirect sources of information to develop a picture of the conditions on the site. Chosen proposer must have an Alaska Business License and provide proof of Insurance' prior to initiating the work. Proposals should be submitted in the form suitable for reference as an attachment in a borough professional services contract. 'A. WorkeesCompensatlon Insurance if applicable The Contractor shall provide and maintain, for all employees of the Contractor engaged In work under this Contract, worker's Compensation Insurance as required by AS23.30.045. The Contractor will be nuc onuble for worker's Compensatan insurance for any subcontractor who provides services under this Contract This coverage must include statutory coverage for States In which employees are engaging In wink and employees liability protection not less than 5100,000.00 per pectora, 5100.000.00 per occunnce.. B ComprehensivelCommerclall General liability, lowninve with coverage limits not less than$1,(x)0,000.00 combined single limit per occurrence and annual aggregates where generally applicable and will Include premise operations. Independent contractors, products/completed operations, broad form property damage, blanket contractual and personal Injury endorsements. The xodlak Island Borough shall be named as an "Additional Insured' under all liability coverage listed above. C. Comprehensive Automobile Liability In summer covering all owned, hired and non -owned" Wiles and with coverage limits not less than 5100,000 Do per person, 5300,000.00 per occurrence bodily injury, and 550.000.00 property damage Page 122 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.b. Page 123 of 125 Presentation of the KIB Fire Damage Assessment Report - Mr.... AGENDA ITEM #1.d. Chapter 4.05 FORMATION AND MODIFICATION OF SERVICE AREAS Sections: 4.05.010 Establishing, altering, abolishing service areas — General. 4.05.020 Initiation of action. 4.05.030 Initiation by petition. 4.05.040 Initiation by assembly. 4.05.050 Standards for assembly action. 4.05.060 Election required. 4.05.010 Establishing, altering, abolishing service areas — General. The assembly, by ordinance, may establish, alter or abolish service areas, subject to the provisions of this chapter. The borough may provide services within a service area only in accordance with Chapter 4.10 KIBC. [Ord. 80-29-0 § 1, 19801. 4.05.020 Initiation of action. The establishing, altering or abolishing of a service area shall be initiated by petition or by the assembly. [Ord. 80-29-0 §1, 1980]. 4.05.030 Initiation by petition. A. A petition to establish, alter or abolish a service area shall contain the signatures of persons who own at least 25 percent of the real property within the boundaries proposed to be established, altered or abolished. All signatures on the petition shall be dated within 60 days of the submission of the petition. In addition to the signatures, the petition also shall contain: 1. The residence and mailing address of, and a legal description of the relevant real property owned by, each signer; 2. The name and mailing address of a representative designated to receive correspondence on behalf of the signers; 3. A statement of the services provided, or proposed to be provided, in the service area; and Page 124 of 125 Review Process and Creation of a Service District AGENDA ITEM #1.d. 4. A vicinity map indicating the area in which the service area is proposed to be established, altered or abolished. B. The petition shall be submitted to the clerk, who shall review it for conformity to this section The clerk shall return an insufficient petition to its sponsors with a written description of its deficiencies. C. The clerk shall refer a sufficient petition to the manager, who shall prepare and submit to the assembly an ordinance effecting the proposed action. [Ord. 98-04 §2, 1998; Ord. 84-61-0 § 10, 1984; Ord. 80-29-0 §1, 1980]. 4.05.040 Initiation by assembly. The assembly shall initiate the establishing, altering or abolishing of a service area by introducing an ordinance effecting the proposed action. [Ord. 80-29-0 §1, 1980]. 4.05.050 Standards for assembly action. A. In acting on an ordinance under this chapter, the assembly shall consider and make findings on the following issues: 1. The need for services within the area, and the feasibility of providing them, considering the area's size, population, and the facilities and services already existing therein; 2. The assessed or estimated value of all taxable property within the area; 3. The characteristics of the area indicating its cohesiveness as a community; and 4. The area's ability to pay for the proposed service. B. No lot, tract, or parcel shall be in more than one service area of like service provided. [Ord. 98-04 §2, 1998; Ord. 80-29-0 § 1, 1980]. 4.05.060 Election required. A. An ordinance altering or abolishing a service area within which one or more services are being provided shall not be effective unless approved by a majority of the qualified voters voting on the question in each area affected by the ordinance. The question shall be submitted and the result implemented as provided in Chapter 4.10 KIBC. B. For the purposes of this section, the area affected by the abolishing of a service area is the entire service area. The area affected by the altering of a service area is the area thereby annexed to, or detached from, the service area, unless the assembly finds that the entire existing service area is affected by the proposed alteration. In making this finding, the assembly shall consider the effect of the alteration on the level of service and cost of service throughout the existing service area. [Ord. 80-29-0 § 1, 19801. Page 125 of 125 Review Process and Creation of a Service District NorthWind Forest Consultants, LLC PO Box 1346 Chehalis, WA 98532 northwindforestWomeastio 2/4/2016 Duane Dvorak Resource Management Officer Kodiak Island Borough Manager's Office 710 Mill Bay Road, Room 108 Kodiak, Alaska 99515 �_i - . ifl Mr. Dvorak: On February 4, 2016 NorihWind Forest Consultants LLC in accordance with the agreement signed and dated the 11th of December A.D. 2015 with the Kodiak Island Borough delivered to your office in the form of a bound hard copy and a PDF file the final report for the Assessment of Fire Damage to Forestlands Owned by The Kodiak Island Borough Caused by the Twin Creek Fire. NorthWind Forest Consultants LLC C- Y24 Joseph Staley President/Owner e Ig Q fli t c. ► _ —44 . a: r�g7M�n 6ii�_ :::JJJ �114wRM: r Table of Contents Section Page H Introduction...................................................................... 2 ProjectScope................................................................... 2 Area Description............................................................. 3 Methods...................................................................... 3-5 Field Equipment Used ................................................... 5 Results......................................................................... 5-6 Findings.......................................................................... 6 Appendix A ................................................... Ortho Image Appendix B ........................ Data Summary/Project Map AppendixC ...................................................... Plot Photos Appendix D ......................................................... USFS-FEIS Appendix E ................................................. Tree Physiology Appendix F .................................... Revised Scope of Work 1 Introduction On August 27th, 2015 a fire began in the vicinity of the West Fork of Twin Creek. The suspected cause was a breach of the power line due to a tree falling into the lines. The environmental condition at the time of ignition were dry vegetation, low to moderate humidity, warm temperatures and strong sustained wind of 49 mph (gusts to 65 mph) from a west/northwest direction as reported by the National Weather Service. The fire moved on an easterly direction through previously harvested units and riparian timber stands. Due to the strong sustained winds the fire most likely moved through these units quickly by spotting out ahead of the core fire. This is substantiated by the evidence of unburned areas mixed with burned areas. Eventually the fire reached the standing timber that occupies property owned by the Kodiak Island Borough. Due to the significant fuel load present in standing timber, the fire grew in intensity and moved through approximately 900 acres of timber into more harvested areas to the east until it reached the ocean shore at Cape Greville. This was a stand replacing crown fire. The most intense portion of this fire was found in the standing timber. This was due to the mixture of fuels found and the ability of the fire to move from the ground into the crown via the existence of the moss found in a typical Kodiak stand of Sitka Spruce (Picea Sitchensis). This fire burned or scorched the majority of the foliage found in the crowns of the standing timber. The crown of a tree is the part of the tree that is the food factory (appendix E -Tree Physiology). Without the ability to adequately produce food the trees will at the very least become severely stressed and susceptible to insect damage but more certainly will die. The fires effect on the crown will account for the largest single causation of tree mortality. This is supported by all the academic literature found on the subject of fires effect on Sitka Spruce (Picea Sitchensis). Project Scope Based on the revised scope of work dated 11/24/2015 (appendix F), this fire damage assessment report will answer the following questions: 1. Percentage of Spruce trees that suffered substantial crown damage; 2. Percentage of Spruce trees that suffered substantial fire damage at the base or over the root system; 3. Percentage and location of areas within the property that may have escaped substantial fire damage; 4. Other observations that the consultant believes to be relevant, in their professional opinion, after reviewing the site. This report and assessment will not address any other topics not related to this scope of work. 2 Area Description The property subject to this report is found on Kodiak Island in section(s) 31 and 32, township 29 south, range 18 west and section(s) 5 and 6, township 30 south, range 18 west, Seward Meridian and is approximately 14 air miles southeast of the City of Kodiak. The property contains approximately 900 gross acres of burnt timber based on GIS identification. The general macro aspect of this property is north facing, with some micro aspects of east and west facing slopes due on terrain. The general topography consists of gentle slopes varying between 5 to 10 percent on the north half of the property and three ridges of complex slopes found on the south half of the property. These ridges have varying slopes of between 5 to 40 percent. The steepest terrain is found in the southeast corner of the property. There are five significant drainages found on the property and are defined by the ridges. Portions of these drainages are known or believed to be anadromous but additional investigation may be justified. The timber found on the subject property would best be described as a homogenous mature Sitka Spruce stand with an average diameter at breast height (DBH) of 23 inches and an estimated average age of 150 years. There was significant stand defect and wind damage observed during this assessment. The stand defect appeared to be pre -fire and due to the age of the trees. The fire had the effect of accentuating this defect in most cases. The wind damage observed was more recent and was due to the fire weakening of the tree bole and roots. Methods To measure any given population one can either count all members in the population or the population can be sampled and then the sample is used to expand the results of the sample to the entire population. Because of the size of this population it was determined that a sampling method was justified. To accurately sample any population it is important to accurately identify the size of the entire population and establish protocols that remove biases. The population size was identified by using an ortho-rectified satellite image (appendix A) of the subject property taken September 22nd, 2015 and Arc -GIS mapping software. The properties boundaries were established from field located property corners using a GPS and survey plat information supplied by the US Bureau of Land Management (BLM). Areas within the property boundaries identified as being burnt were digitized with a polygon to develop the gross acreage of fire affected timber. From this gross acreage deduction were made for known regulatory timber retention (RMZ) and visually identified non -forested acres. This established the net acreage used to identify the entire population used in this health assessment. 3 To establish the sample grid and sample frequency, we turned to the Alaska Forest Resources & Practices regulations, more specifically 11 AAC 95.375 (g). This regulation describes the State's accepted procedure for determining the number of commercially available trees in an affected timber stand that are significantly composed of fire killed or fatally damaged trees. The full language of this regulation is attached below. 11 AAC 95.375 (g) To apply for an exemption from reforestation requirements under (b) (2) of this section, a landowner must request an exemption in the reforestation section of a detailed plan of operations under 11 AAC 95.220(10) or a change in operations under 11 AAC 95.230 and must demonstrate that the affected stand is significantly composed of insect and disease - killed, fire killed, wind thrown, or fatally damaged trees. If required by the division, the request must include a description of the sampling procedure, the sampling data, and a data summary. The data summary must show the number of commercial trees per acre that are dead or fatally damaged, and the percentage of commercial trees in the stand that are dead or fatally damaged. Sample plots must be located without bias throughout the affected stand. For stands 1, 000 acres or less, the minimum sample density is 10 plots per 100 acres. For stands greater than 1,000 acres, the minimum sample density is six plots per 100 acres. Fewer plots are acceptable if the sample standard error is less than 10 percent of the mean. Either fixed diameter or variable plot sampling methods are acceptable. Sample plots must average approximately at least five sample trees of commercial value. Trees must be recorded by diameter class as either dead, damaged by insects, disease, fire, or wind, or not impacted. The division may accept other documentation or field evidence in lieu of sampling in cases where the extent of damage is obvious. (h) Following receipt of the exemption request, the division may inspect the site to confirm the information submitted before determining whether the stand is significantly composed of insect and disease -killed, fire killed, wind thrown, or fatally damaged trees. The division will make this determination as part of the review of the detailed plan of operations or change in operations. In areas exempted from reforestation requirements, the landowner and operator shall protect existing reproduction from logging damage where feasible. To create the described sample described in 11 AAC 95.375 (g), we again turned to Arc -GIS and used the fishnet tool to create a ten acre grid and referenced that grid to the parcel boundary lines. A unique function of the fishnet tool is that it will create a point in the center of each grid box. These points were then used as the locations where trees would be sampled. These office generated sample points were exported to a GPS file to be used in the field to navigate to each sample point's location on the ground. This is much more accurate than the way sample points were field located before GPS was available. To determine the size of the sample, the previously completed 1997 timber cruise done by Parsons & Associates for the Kodiak Island Borough was consulted for stand characteristics. Using statistical analysis, it was determined that a sample of 10% of the population would generate a valid outcome. Using the sample size and the sample point frequency, it was determined that 1/loth acre fixed radius circular plots would achieve the correct sample for this size of population. Ell Once in the field, sample points were located by using the Garmin and Trimble GPS to navigate to their respective location. All efforts were made to get as close to the actual sample point as possible and in most case less than 6 foot accuracy was achieved. Once each sample point was located, a sequential number was written on an orange flag hung high near the sample point and a ground flag was placed at the point of sample. From this center point, trees were determined to be in the sample based on the sample size radius (37.2 feet). This was done by measuring the distance from the center point of the sample plot to the tree using the laser range finder. Then each tree found to be in the sample was evaluated for fire damage and recorded for each of the three criteria (roots, bole and crown) as established by the scope of work. These are the three parts of a tree that determine the health of that tree. Serious damage to any one of these will cause tree mortality. The scope of work required the assessment to establish the "percentage of Spruce trees that suffered substantial damage", so a rating method was employed using a scale of 0 to 10 to evaluate each of the tree parts. The assigning of the rating was based on the visual evidence found at each tree as compared to what would be found at a healthy tree. If a trees root collar had no evidence of fire then that tree received 0 rating for roots. Conversely if there was substantial evidence of burning around the root collar then the tree was given a rating between 1 and 10 commensurate with the severity. This was the same rating method used for the bole and crown. The final step taken at each sample point was to document, by representative photographs (appendix C), the conditions found at the point and the surrounding area. A minimum of four pictures were taken at each sample point. This data as collect was compiled and summarized for the basis of this report Field Equipment Used Trimble 6000 series Geo-XH GPS data collector with a Tornado external antenna (sub -meter accurate), Garmin 64S GPS, Laser Technology Tru Pulse 200L laser range finder (used to measure distance), waterproof Nikon Coolpix S33 digital camera, a pocket Biltmore stick (used to measure DBH), a 75 foot rewind tape measure (used to measure distance), a pocket hand compass (used to measure direction) and a plot center staff (use to maintain sample point center). Results Based on the summary of the assessment data (appendix B), the total population of commercially viable trees is 61,477 trees. This population is found on 782 acres. There is an average of 79 trees per acre (TPA) and the average tree has a diameter at breast height (DBH) of 23 inches. 5 The assessment measured 621 trees, on 79, 1/10th acre sample points for an expanded sample of 6,210 trees (10.1% of the total population). This correlates to an average of 8 trees measured on each sample point. The assessment found that 25% of these trees had substantial root damage based on receiving a damage rating of 70% or higher, 48% of the trees had substantial damage to their boles based on receiving a damage rating of 70% or higher and 90% of the trees had substantial damage to their crowns based on receiving a damage rating of 70% or higher. The assessment data also indicates that 6,138 total trees remain undamaged by fire. This represents approximately 8 trees per acre are undamaged, although these trees will not be evenly distributed throughout the subject property. One of the requested receivables was the percentage and location of areas within the subject property that may have escaped substantial fire damage. None of the sample points in this assessment picked up any such categorized areas and to seek any of them out would have inserted a bias into the sample. Our professional opinion based on review of the ortho image used is that there may be less than 3% of the property that would meet this category. Based on this observation, if a definitive answer is necessary, there are some photogrammetric techniques available to perform this analysis but they are expensive and were not included in the proposal. Findings Based on the assessment data and field observations, the fire event of August 27`h, 2015, created a substantial crown fire and a lesser but still significant ground fire on the subject property, with 90% of the trees sustaining 70% or greater crown damage. The effect of this fire event is best characterized as a stand replacement fire and the expected mortality will be extensive. This is suggestive of literature and observations of the results of fires that occur in Sitka Spruce stands. The US Forest Service -"Fire Ecology Information System" (appendix D) very succinctly states the effects of fire on Sitka Spruce (Picea Sitchensis): 1. "Its thin bark and a shallow root system make it very susceptible to fire damage"; 2. "Sitka spruce forests have a fire regime of long -interval (150 to 350+ years) severe crown or surface fires which result in total stand replacement" [emphasis added]; 3. "The immediate effect of a cool to hot fire is damage to the cambium layer, usually resulting in death of the tree." Other fires that have occurred in the Kodiak Archipelago (Afognak Island, slash burn 1989 and wild fire 1996) have exhibited substantial mortality in the population of both the young and mature trees that were exposed to fire. �o- Appendix B KIB Timber Health Assessment Summary Based on Assessment Data 1/22/2016 # of Plots 79 ft. #of Trees 621 sampled Av. # Trees 7.9 per plot GIS Burned Acres 900 gross RMZ Acres 93 in. Non -forested Acres 25 Assessment Acres 782 net Plot Radius 37.2 ft. Plot Factor 10 TPA 79 Total Trees 61,477 Av. DBH 23 in. Significant Damaged Trees I I#of Trees I 29,798 1 Estimated Un -damaged Trees Remaining: 6,138 TPA: 8 Spacing: 75'X 75' Appendix B Comment and Photo Log Plot # General Comments Photos 101 Scorched salmon berry 1-4 102 Small wood, wet site 5-8 103 Small Stream 9-16 104 Scorched salmon berry 17-26 105 Hillside NW aspect 35% 27-34 106 brush burnt extensive 35-42 107 Hillside NW aspect 30% 43-48 Plot # General Comments Photos 201 heavy crown damage 1-8& 1-2 202 wet site non-merch 9-16 & 3-5 203 north edge of burn 17-24/6-8 204 edge of burn by 4 wheeler trail/wet site on half plot 24-32/9-12 205 heavy crown damage 36-44 / 13-15 206 heavy ground burn 45-52 / 18-20 207 heavy ground burn 53-60 208 ground burned moderate 61-68 209 lite ground burn 69-76 Plot # General Comments Photos 301 ground heavy burn 3-10 302 moderate ground burn 11-18 303 ground burnt 19-26 304 ground burn 27-34 305 heavy ground burn / extensive crown damage 35-42 306 heavy salmon berry patch / heavy crown damage 43-50 307 heavy crown damage 51-58 Plot # General Comments Photos 401 lite ground burn / crown damage 1-8 402 heavy burnt / heavy crown damage 9-16 403 lite ground burn 17-24 404 hot burn / heavy crown damage 25-32 405 forested wet site scorched 33-40 406 crown damage 41-48 Appendix B Photo s Plot # General Comments Photo s 501 heavy burnt / heavy crown damage 11-18 502 edge of wetland/heavy ground burn /heavy crown damage scorched 27-34 503 heavy burnt 35-42 504 significant crown scorch 43-50 505 edge of big creek rmz/ only 1 tree in unit /significant crown damage 51-58 506 heavy burnt /heavy crown damage 59-66 507 significant crown & bole damage 67-74 508 heavy ground burn /burnt boles /crown damage 75-82 509 lite ground burn /scorched crowns 83-90 510 significant crown damage /ground burn 91-98 Plot # General Comments Photo s 601 heavy burnt /significant crown damage 1-8 602 scorched crowns /significant pitching 9-16 603 ground burn /significant crown damage 17-24 604 heavy burn /significant crown damage 25-32 605 ground burn /basal burnt 33-40 606 RMZ Big Creek /heavy crown damage / ground burn 41-49 607 heavy basal burnt /heavy crown damage 50-57 608 heavy crown damage / heavy basal burnt 58-69 609 heavy ground burn /heavy basal burnt /crown damage 70-77 Plot # General Comments Photos 701 mixture of heavy to lite ground burn /significant crown damage 1-8 702 lite ground burn /thin crowns 9-16 703 near little creek /thin crowns 25-34 704 edge of wetland /ground burn 35-42 705 heavy crown damage /significant pitching 43-50 706 heavy burn 51-58 707 heavy burn /crown damage 59-66 708 significant crown & basal burn 67-74 709 over break chiniak river/fire skip/ crown damage 75-82 Plot # General Comments Photos 801 heavy burnt /heavy crown damage 1-8 802 lite ground burn /heavy crown damage 9-18 803 very thin crowns/ lite ground burn 19-26 804 heavy burnt /thin crowns scorched 27-34 805 lite ground burn /significant crown damage 35-42 806 ground burn /significant thin crowns 43-50 807 lite ground burn /scorched very thin crowns 51-58 808 heavy ground burn /significant crown damage 59-66 809 heavy crown damage 67-74 Appendix B Plot # General Comments Photos 901 heavy ground burn /significant crown damage 1-8 902 significant crown damage /heavy scorched /lite ground burn 9-16 903 very thin crowns /scorched /lite ground burn /big Creek bottom 19-26 904 heavy ground burn /significant crown damage 27-34 905 edge of small stream /heavy burnt 35-42 906 heavy burnt /rock knob/significant crown damage 47-54 907 heavy burnt /significant crown damage /steep ground 55-62 908 lite ground burn /significant crown damage 63-70 909 lite ground burn /crown damage 71-78 Plot # General Comments Photos 1001 heavy burnt /significant crown damage 1-8 1002 heavy ground burn /significant crown damage /steep side hill above chiniak river 9-16 1003 heavy burnt/significant crown damage /steep sidehill 17-24 1004 heavy burnt /significant crown damage /steep sidehill draw 29-36 IWO UL al{M ✓yLy.. ,+moi -Tv 4y' ♦ /G`1�V �•'!' 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IMF f. ir f oil" Al fik IL,► i i ` I i �) 1 }a n '4'44 a 'f a 1 ` I i ,IN rh s it lr t �l� 6 �� .T■t3[�� '. r l: d iiia , •'"� ; , j t 1 �,It1 L •.�� , I f � F � 4 � �F •S S. - F 1 r 11A Apr �,,.• �� ( f .1 �f (S� s eye iP f R Picea sitchensis Appendix D Index of Species Information SPECIES: Picea sitchensis 1 /1 r l 1 1 , 1 1 11111 100JILW. i1 41 .11 1 1' 1, Introductory SPECIES: Picea sitchensis AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : Griffith, Randy Scott. 1992. Picea sitchensis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2015, September 25]. ABBREVIATION PICSIT SYNONYMS NO -ENTRY SCS PLANT CODE PISI COMMON NAMES : Sitka spruce tideland spruce coast spruce yellow spruce silver spruce western spruce Menzies' spruce TAXONOMY : The scientific name of Sitka spruce is Picea sitchensis (Bongard) Carriere (Pinaceae) Species within the genus Picea form hybrid swarms at the interface of their ranges. Sitka spruce naturally hybridizes with white spruce (P. glauca) to produce Lutz spruce (Picea X lutzii Little) [22,23,ZA,.5a], It is often difficult to identify Picea X lutzii by morphological chacteristics in stands with low levels of introgression Mi. Sitka spruce in plantations will also hybridize with Yezo spruce (Picea jezoensis), Serbian spruce (P. omorika), and Engelmann spruce (P. engelmannii) [22.,2,23]. LIFE FORM Tree FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS No special status http://w .fs.fed.us/database/feis/plmts/tme/picsit/all.html[9/25/2015 10:32:27 AM] Picea sitchensis OTHER STATUS : NO -ENTRY Appendix D DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE SPECIES: Picea sitchensis GENERAL DISTRIBUTION : Sitka spruce's natural range is a narrow strip of land along the northern Pacific coast from south-central Alaska to northern California. Its widest distribution (130 miles [210 km] inland) occurs in southwestern Alaska and northern British Columbia. Its southern boundary is defined by a disjunct population in Mendocino County, California [2d,2g]. Sitka spruce has been extensively introduced into the British Isles [1., 57] . ECOSYSTEMS : FRES20 Douglas -fir FRES23 Fir - spruce FRES24 Hemlock - Sitka spruce FRES27 Redwood STATES : AK CA HI OR WA BC YT BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS : 1 Northern Pacific Border 2 Cascade Mountains 3 Southern Pacific Border KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS : K001 Spruce - cedar - hemlock forest K002 Cedar - hemlock - Douglas -fir forest K006 Redwood forest K029 California mixed evergreen forest SAF COVER TYPES : 221 Red alder 222 Black cottonwood - willow 223 Sitka spruce 229 Western hemlock 225 Western hemlock - Sitka spruce 227 Western redcedar - western hemlock 228 Western redcedar 229 Pacific Douglas -fir 230 Douglas -fir - western hemlock 231 Port -Orford -cedar 232 Redwood SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES NO -ENTRY HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES : Sitka spruce is listed as a dominant overstory species in the following published classifications: Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington [j¢]. Plant association and management guide: Siuslaw National Forest [21.]. Preliminary classification of forest vegetation of the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS http://w .fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/picsittall.html[9/25/2015 10:32:27 AN11 Picea sitchensis Appendix D SPECIES: Picea sitchensis WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE : Sitka spruce is the most important timber species in Alaska The wood, with its high strength to weight ratio, is valuable for use as turbine blades for wind -driven electrical generators, masts for sail boats, ladders, oars [ZA], boats, and racing sculls [5U]. Sitka spruce's high resonant quality makes it valuable in the manufacture of piano sounding boards and guitars. The wood from Sitka spruce is also used in saw timber, high-grade wood pulp, and plywood IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE : Sitka spruce forests in various phases of succession provide habitat, in many cases critical habitat, for a large variety of mammals, game and nongame birds, reptiles, and amphibians [1,12, Q3.]. Its value as a browse species for large ungulates is poor [11], while it has fair to good value for some game birds [AZ]. PALATABILITY : Sitka spruce is slightly palatable to large ungulates. It is browsed only in the spring, and then only the new growth [5,11]. In Alaska and British Columbia the needles comprise up to 90 percent of the winter diet of blue grouse [921• NUTRITIONAL VALUE NO -ENTRY COVER VALUE : Sitka spruce forests provide hiding and thermal cover for a large variety of mammals. Old-growth Sitka spruce forests in Alaska and British Columbia are critical winter habitat for the Sitka deer. Old growth provides thermal cover and acts as a snow screen, allowing easier access to browse species [22,51]• Sitka deer require large blocks of old growth from sea level to the alpine and subalpine environments for migrational movements from summer to winter range [51]• Sitka spruce forests also provide habitat for Roosevelt elk, woodland caribou [12], Alaskan brown bear, and mountain goat [AZ]. Sitka spruce provides good nesting and roosting habitat for avifauna [52,511. Snags and live trees with broken tops provide nesting habitat for primary and secondary cavity nesters [211• The bald eagle uses primarily (greater than 90 percent) Sitka spruce for nesting trees on Admiralty Island [AZ1, and also uses them as roosting trees to survey the incoming breakers for food [a]. The peregrine falcon in coastal British Columbia uses Sitka spruce for platform nesting and secondary cavity nesting [2]• _ VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES : Sitka spruce is a pioneer species which colonizes glacial moraines as the glaciers retreat. On the Juneau Icefield, Sitka spruce has colonized "nunatacks" (rocky peaks) protruding through the icefield [-E]. Sitka spruce also acted as an aggressive pioneer on uplifted terrain from the 1969 earthquake [A]. OTHER USES AND VALUES : Native Americans have used Sitka spruce for various purposes. The roots can be woven to produce baskets and rain hats. The pitch was used for calking canoes [a], for chewing, and medicinal purposes [911. Pioneers split Sitka spruce into shakes for roofing and siding [5]. Sitka spruce also has limited food value for humans, for the inner bark and young shoots may be eaten as emergency food. Tea can be made from the young shoots [97]. In the first half of this century Sitka spruce provided most of the wood for structural components of World War I and II aircraft [2,521• More recently it has been used as the nose cones for missiles and space craft [SQ]• OTHER MANAGEMENT http://w .fs.fed.us/database/feis/plmts/tree/piesittall.html[9/25/2015 10:32:27 AM] Picea sitchensis Appendix D Sitka spruce, as one of the most important timber species and components of old-growth habitat, has recently been the center of many management concerns. Proposals for changes in timber harvest areas and methods have been explored by Nyberg and others [Aa) and Schoen and Kirchhoff [U]. They provide in-depth information and management alternatives. Wildlife habitat: Even -aged management of the species results in reduced habitat for the black -tailed deer. Shrub fields created after clearcutting are of limited use to deer in the winter. The depth of snow accumulation is greater, and snow persists longer in the clearcuts, reducing the time available for browsing. The forage in clearcuts is less digestible than that grown in the "shade of the preharvest stands. Also, the large amount of slash resulting from clearcutting old-growth Sitka spruce impedes movement of large ungulates, especially during winter migration. Lastly, once the regeneration has reached canopy closure (20 to 30 years), the understory production is greatly reduced for at least the next 100 years, compared to old-growth stands with their various stages of regeneration [12,251• Alaback [21 studied ways to reduce the negative impact of clearcutting on Sitka deer. Thinning the stands prior to canopy closure (less than 25 years) seems to be the best method for areas already cut. Thinning to 12 x 12 feet (3.5 x 3.5 m) spacing results in the most diverse vegetation. Once canopy closure has occurred (greater than 30 years), uneven -aged management practices can result in the creation of gaps in the canopy, which in turn will allow for a more diverse understory [-.]- Damaging agents: Sitka spruce is susceptible to Sitka spruce weevil, or white pine weevil (Pissodes strobi)), spruce aphid (Elatobium abietinum), spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis), and root rot by Armillaria millea and Heterobasidian annosum [24]. The Sitka spruce weevil has such a detrimental effect on Sitka spruce in the lower portion of its range, from southern British Columbia to northern California, that Sitka spruce is not actively managed for regeneration there. The F1 generation of the hybrid, Lutz spuce, yields a tree 100 percent resistant to weevil attack, but growth rate is sacrificed. Back -crossing the F1 generation with Sitka spruce increases the growth rate, but up to 50 percent of the progeny are susceptible to weevil attack [91]• Also, although Lutz spruce is less susceptible to the Sitka spruce weevil, it is more susceptible than Sitka spruce to the spruce beetle [22]. Sitka spruce is susceptible to wind throw, which can account for up to 80 percent of the mortality within stands. Regeneration from gap phase replacement, however, is rapid [15]. Control: Chemical shrub control is often required to regenerate Sitka spruce successfully following harvest BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS SPECIES: Picea sitchensis GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS : Sitka spruce is a native, long-lived (greater than 800 years), evergreen, monoecious tree [24,55]• Female strobili are produced at the ends of primary branches near the top, while the male strobili are positioned lower in the tree on secondary branches [24]• Sitka spruce is the world's largest spruce. It can obtain heights of greater than 210 feet (65 m) with a d.b.h. of 16 feet (5 m) on better sites [24]. The base of the bole is buttressed [25]. When forest grown the bole is long and free of lower limbs [23]• The root system of Sitka spruce is shallow and platelike with long lateral roots with few branchings. On deep well -drained soils the root system may reach depths of 6.5 feet (2 m), especially on alluvial soils. Root grafting often occurs between roots of the same tree and adjacent trees [22,24]. RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM Phanerophyte http://w .fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/picsit/all.htm][9/25/2015 10:32:27 AM] Picea sitchensis Appendix D REGENERATION PROCESSES : Sitka spruce reproduces both sexually and asexually. Sexual maturity varies from 20 to 40 years. Dispersal of seeds is moisture dependent; when the ripe cones dry the seed is dispersed, and when the cones become wet again they close. To avoid loss of seed, cones should be collected soon after ripening M) . The seeds are small with a mean of 210,000 cleaned seeds per pound (467,000/kg) [ZA]. The germination rate is 54 percent, but this can be raised to 66 percent by moistening the germination medium with a 0.2 percent potassium nitrate (KNO3) solution [521. Germination is'epigeal. Sitka spruce seed will germinate on almost any substrate, although mineral soil or a mixture of mineral soil and organic soil are considered the best seedbeds [24]. The "nurse log syndrome" has a key role in the regeneration of Sitka spruce in its wetter environs [12,15_,2Q]. Germination and seedling survival are greater on rotting logs then on the forest floor. In a germination study less than 1 percent of the seeds in a moss mat germinated, and of these 38 percent were killed within a month by fungi [21]. Nurse log syndrome results in a "colonnade" where there are several trees in a row with the roots supporting the bole in mid-air after the nurse log.has rotted away [5]. Seedling establishment and growth can be enhanced with the inoculation of the mycorrhizal fungi, Thelephora terrestris Sitka spruce shows strong trends in hardiness and growth in relation to geographic origination. These trends can be used to increase growth rate, but they can also have adverse effects on survival [22,3_@1• Lester and others [3_@] provide information on seed sources, outplanting results, hardiness, and growth rate trends. Sitka spruce reproduces asexually by layering. This usually takes place in moist areas or at timberline [22,23,3_1,5U1- Cuttings from current year's growth root more readily than older branches [24]• SITE CHARACTERISTICS : Sitka spruce occurs in the hypermaritime to maritime cool mesothermal climates [2.,3_3]• It occurs from shoreline to timberline in the northern portion of its range but is restricted to shoreline in the southern portion of its range [4]. Sitka spruce grows best on sites with deep, moist, well -drained soils [22]• It can tolerate the salty ocean spray of seaside dunes, headlands, and beaches, and the brackish water of bogs [3_4]. Sitka spruce is limited to areas of high annual precipitation with cool, moist summers [],4.,23_]. Soil: Sitka spruce has a stong.affinity for soils high in calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus in the soil orders Entisols, Spodosols, Inceptisols, and Histosols. These soils are usually acidic with pH typically ranging from 4.0 to 5.7 [23]. Elevation: Sitka spruce grows from sea level to timberline in Alaska (0 to 3,900 feet (0-1,189 m)) [55.] with elevational limitations of 2,000 feet (600 m) in Washington and 1,500 feet (450 m) in Oregon and California [a]. Associates: In addition to those listed under Distribution and Occurrence, Sitka spruce's overstory associates include mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana), Alaska -cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), and western white pine (P. monticola) [2A]. Understory associates include western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), false lily -of -the -valley (Maianthemum dilatatum), stream violet (Viola glabella), evergreen violet (V. sempervirens), red huckleberry (Vaccinium parvifolium), devils club (Oplopanax horridus), salmonberry (Rubus spectablis), and thimbleberry (R. parviflorus) [29.]. SUCCESSIONAL STATUS : Sitka spruce is a shade -intolerant species [3_3] that is both a pioneer and a climax species 1221• Sitka spruce acts as an early pioneer on the undeveloped soils of landslides, sand dunes, uplifted beaches, and deglaciated terrain; it is a climax species in the coastal forests [22]. SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT : Flowering and seed dispersal dates for Sitka spruce in Alaska and Oregon are as follows [22,547: http://www.fs.fed.ustdotabue/feis/plantst(ree/piesittall.him][9/25/2015 10:32:27 AM] Picea sitchensis - Flowering Alaska April to June Oregon May Appendix D Fruit Ripens Seed Dispersal late Aug. to mid -Sept. Starts in Oct Aug Oct. to Spring Seed dispersal is moisture dependent; when the ripe cones dry dispersal begins. The majority (73 percent) of seed are dispersed in the first 6 weeks; the remainder are released over the next year [Z2]• FIRE ECOLOGY SPECIES: Picea sitchensis FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS : Fire is not an important factor in the ecology of Sitka spruce [1]• Its thin bark and a shallow root system make it very susceptible to fire damage [�, 9.1- Sitka spruce forests have a fire regime of long -interval (150 to 350+ years) severe crown or surface fires which result in total stand replacement [AA]. FIRE REGIMES : Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FETS home page under "Find Fire Regimes". POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY : Secondary colonizer - offsite seed FIRE EFFECTS SPECIES: Picea sitchensis IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT : The immediate effect of a cool to hot fire is damage to the cambium layer, usually resulting in death of the tree [a,.E]• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT NO -ENTRY PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE : Sitka spruce will invade a burned site via wind -dispersed seed from adjacent unburned forests [12]. Wind -dispersed seed travels 33 to 880 yards (30-792 m) from the parent tree [Zil. DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE NO -ENTRY FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : Arguments for and against slash burning in spruce forests recur throughout the literature. The strategy chosen will yield different results, depending on latitude. In the northern portion of Sitka spruce's range broadcast burning will favor Sitka spruce over western hemlock, but unless Sitka spruce is planted, seedling establishment will be delayed until the next seed crop 12A,2Sx,9fl,121. Ruth and Harris [92] list the advantages of slash burning as follows: (1) Reduces fire hazard (2) Destroys advance regeneration (3) Changes timber type * This can have both positive and negative ramifications. It reduces competition with western hemlock, but growth of Sitka spruce seedlings in one study was reduced [19.]. In the southern portion of its range broadcast burning will favor the http:llw"w.fs.fed.usldatabaselfeis1plants/treelpicsiUall.html[9/25/2015 10:32:27 AM] Picea sitchensis Appendix D establishment of Douglas -fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) mixed forest, while long-term fire exclusion will result in loss of Douglas -fir from the overstory. This is advantageous due to the increased stumpage value of Douglas -fir and the negative impacts of the spruce weevil [99,,9.4]. In the coastal area of Alaska, broadcast burning has been recommended to reduce the negative aesthetic value of large quantities of slash from clearcut old-growth Sitka spruce forests [.,Ia]. _ However, removal of the slash by burning in Sitka spruce forests is not required because of the to rapid decay in that moist environment (9Q]. Burning is not recommended on steep slopes and where water quality may be degraded REFERENCES SPECIES: Picea si.tchensis REFERENCES : 1. Alaback, Paul B. 1982. Dynamics of understory biomass in Sitka spruce -western hemlock forests of southeast Alaska. Ecology. 63(6): 1932-1948. [7305] 2. Alaback, Paul B. 1984. Plant succession following logging in the Sitka spruce -western hemlock forests of southeast Alaska. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-173. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 26 p. [7849] 3. Alaback, Paul B.; Herman, F. R. 1988. Long-term response of understory vegetation to stand density in Picea-Tsuga forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 18: 1522-1530. [6227] 4. Alden, John N. 1988. Species selection for forest development in Alaska. In: Slaughter, Charles W.; Gasbarro, Tony, eds. Proceedings of the Alaska forest soil productivity workshop: Proceedings of a workshop; 1987 April 28-30; Anchorage, AK. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-219. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 110-120. [5584] 5. Arno, Stephen F.; Hammerly, Ramona P. 1977. Northwest trees. Seattle, WA: The Mountaineers. 222 p. [4208] 6. Arno, Stephen F.; Hammerly, Ramona P. 1984. Timberline: Mountain and arctic forest frontiers. Seattle, WA: The Mountaineers. 304 p. [339] 7. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434] 8. Brown, Arthur A.; Davis, Kenneth P. 1973. Forest fire control and use. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. 686 p. [15993] 9. Campbell, R. Wayne; Paul, Marilyn A.; Rodway, Michael S.; Carter, Harry R. 1978. Tree -nesting peregrine falcons in British Columbia. Condor. 79(4): 500-501. [13724] 10. Coutts, M. P.; Nicoll, B. C. 1990. Growth and survival of $hoots, roots, and mycorrhizal mycelium in clonal Sitka spruce during the first growing season after planting. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research. 20: 861-868. [12095] 11. Cowan, Ian McTaggart. 1945. The ecological relationships of the food of the Columbian black -tailed deer, Odocoileus hemionus columbianus (Richardson), in the c. forest region southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Ecological Monographs. 15(2): 110-139. [16006] 12. Deal, Robert L.; Oliver, Chadwick Dearing; Bormann, Bernard T. 1991. Reconstruction of mixed hemlock -spruce stands in coastal southeast Alaska. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 21: 643-654. [14673] 13. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905] 14. Feller, M. C.1982. The ecological effects of slashburning with hup:H/ .fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tme/piesittall.html(9/25/2015 10:32:27 AM] Picea sitchensis - . Appendix D particular reference to British Columbia: a literature review. Victoria, BC: Ministry of Forests. 60 p. [10470] 15. Franklin, Jerry F. 1968. Pacific Northwest forests. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Billings, William Dwight, eds. North American terrestrial vegetation..Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press: 103-130. [13679] 16. Franklin, Jerry F.; Dyrness, C. T. 1973. Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-8. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 417 p. [961] 17. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; (and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998] 18. Gratkowski, H. 1977. Site preparation and conifer release in Pacific Northwest forests. In: Proceedings, 27th annual weed conference; [Date of conference unknown]; Yakima, WA. [Place of publication unknown]. [Publisher unknown]. 29-32. [17160] 19. Hanley, Thomas A.; Robbins, Charles T.; Spalinger, Donald E. 1989. Forest habitats and the nutritional ecology of Sitka black -tailed deer: a research synthesis with implications for forest management. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-230. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 52 p. [7509] 20. Harmon, Mark E. 1989. Retention of needles and seeds on logs in Picea sitchensis - Tsuga heterophylla forests of coastal Oregon and Washington. Canadian Journal of Botany. 67: 1833-1837. [7984] 21. Harmon, Mark E.; Franklin, Jerry F. 1989. Tree seedlings on logs in Picea-Tsuga forests of Oregon and Washington. Ecology. 70(l): 48-59. (13082] 22. Harris, A. S. 1966. Effects of slash burning on conifer regeneration in southeast Alaska. Research Note NOR -18. Juneau, AK: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Forest Experiment Station. 6 p. [7304] 23. Harris, A. S. 1978. Distribution, genetics, and silvical characteristics of Sitka spruce. In: Proceedings, IUFRO Joint Meeting Workshop Parties; [Date of conference unknown]; Vancouver, BC. Volume 1. Victoria, BC: BC Ministry of Forestry, Information Service Branch: 95-122. [7785] 24. Harris, A. S. 1990. Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr. Sitka spruce. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 260-267. (13389] 25. Harris, John. 1983. Wildlife on managed forested lands. In: O'Loughlin, Jennifer; Pfister, Robert D., eds. Management of second -growth forests: The state of knowledge and research needs: Proceedings of a symposium; 1982 May 14; Missoula, MT. Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station: 209-221. [7102] 26. Hawkes, B. C.; Feller, M. C.; Meehan, D. 1990. Site preparation: fire. In: Lavender, D. P.; Parish, R.; Johnson, C. M.; [and others], eds. Regenerating British Columbia's forests. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press: 131-149. [10712] - 27. Hemstrom, Miles A.; Logan, Sheila E. 1986. Plant association and management guide: Siuslaw National Forest. R6 -Ecol 220-1986a. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 121 p. [10321] 28. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168] 29. Holsten, Edward H; Werner, Richard A. 1990. Comparison of white, Sitka, and Lutz spruce and hosts of the spruce beetle in Alaska. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research. 20: 292-297. [11042] 30. Hosie, R. C. 1969. Native trees of Canada. 7th ed. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Forestry Service, Department of Fisheries and Forestry. 380 p. [3375] 31. Hulten, Eric. 1968. Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 1008 p. [13403] http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/piesittall.html[9/25/2015 10:32:27 AM] Picea sitchensis Appendix D 32. Klinka, K.; Feller, M. C.; Green, R. N.; [and others]. 1990. Ecological principles: applications. In: Lavender, D. P.; Parish, R.; Johnson, C. M.; [and others], eds. Regenerating British Columbia's forests. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press: 55-72. [10710] 33. Klinka, K.; Krajina, V. J.; Ceska, A.; Scagel, A. M. 1989. Indicator plants of coastal British Columbia. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press. 288 p. [10703] 34. Krajina, V. J.; Klinka, K.; Worrall, J. 1982. Distribution and ecological characteristics of trees and shrubs of British Columbia. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia, Department of Botany and Faculty of Forestry. 131 p. [6728] 35. Kruckeberg, A. R. 1982. Gardening with native plants of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 252 p. [9980] 36. Krygier, James T.; Ruth, Robert H. 1961. Effects of herbicides on salmonberry and on Sitka spruce and western hemlock seedlings. Weeds. 9(3): 416-422. [6608] 37. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384] 38. Lester, D. T.; Ying, C. C.; Konishi, J. D. 1990. Genetic control and improvement of planting stock. In: Lavender, D. P.; Parish, R.; Johnson, C. M.; [and others], eds. Regenerating British Columbia's Forests. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press: 180-192. [10715] 39. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496] 40. Minore, Don. 1979. Comparative autecological characteristics of northwestern tree species --a literature review. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-87. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 72 p. [1659] 41. Mitchell, Russel G.; Wright, Kenneth H.; Johnson, Norman E. 1990. Damage by the Sitka spruce weevil (Pissodes strobi) and growth patterns for 10 spruce species a hybrids over 26 years in the Pacific Northwest. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-434. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 12 p. [15127]. 42. Meehan, William R. 1974. The forest ecosystem of southeast Alaska: 4. Wildlife habitats. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-16. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 32 p. [13479] 43. Nyberg, J. Brian; McNay R, Scott; Kirchoff, Matthew D.; [and others]. 1989. Integrated management of timber and deer: coastal forests of British Columbia and Alaska. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-226. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 65 p. [7468] 44. Parminter, John. 1991. Fire history and effects on vegetation in three biogeoclimatic zones of British Columbia. In: Nodvin, Stephen C.; Waldrop, Thomas A., eds. Fire and the environment: ecological and -cultural perspectives: Proceedings of an international symposium; 1990 March 20-24; Knoxville, TN. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE -69. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: 263-272. [16651] 45. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843] 46. Reynolds, Keith M. 1990. Preliminary classification of forest vegetation of the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-424. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 67 p. [14581] 47. Robuck, O. Wayne. 1985. The common plants of the muskegs of southeast Alaska. Miscellaneous Publication/July 1985. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 131 p. [11556] 48. Ruth, Robert H. 1974. Regeneration and growth of west -side mixed http://w .fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/picsittall.htm][9/25/2015 10:32:27 AM] Picea sitchensis Appendix D conifers. In: Camer, Owen P., ed. Environmental effects of forest residues in the Pacific Northwest: A state -of -knowledge compendium. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-24. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest - Service, Pacific NorthwestForest and Range Experiment Station: K-1 to K-21. [6381] 49. Ruth, Robert H.; Harris, A. S. 1975. Forest residues in hemlock -spruce forests of the Pacific Northwest and Alaska --a state -of -knowledge review w. recommendations for residue mgmt. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-39. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 52 p. [15125] 50. Safford, L. O. 1974. Picea A. Dietr. spruce. In: Schopmeyer, C. S., ed. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handb. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 587-597. [7728] 51. Schoen, John W.; Kirchhoff, Matthew D. 1990. Seasonal habitat use by Sitka black -tailed deer on Admiralty Island, Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management. 54(3): 371-378. [11940] 52. Smith, Kimberly G. 1980. Nong"ame birds of the Rocky Mountain spruce -fir forests and their management. In: DeGraaf, Richard M., technical coordinator. Management of western forests and grasslands for nongame birds: Workshop proceedings; 1980 February 11-14; Salt Lake City, UT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT -86. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 258-279. [17910] 53. Stednick, John D.; Tripp, Larry N.; McDonald, Robert J. 1982. Slash burning effects on soil and water chemistry in southeastern Alaska. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 37(2): 126-128. [86061 54. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1982. National list of scientific plant names. Vol. 1. List of plant names. SCS -TP -159. Washington, DC. 416 p. [11573] 55. Viereck, Leslie A.; Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1972. Alaska trees and shrubs. Agric. Handb. 410. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 265 p. [68841 56. Wiens, John A. 1975. Avian communities, energetics, and functions in coniferous forest habitats. In: Smith, Dixie R, technical coordinator. Proceedings of the symposium on management of forest and range habitats for nongame birds; 1975 May 6-9; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO -1. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 226-265. [177731 . 57. Worrell, R.; Malcolm, D. C. 1990. Productivity of Sitka spruce in northern Britain. 1. The effects of elevation and climate. Forestry. 63(2): 105-118. [117621 http://www.fs.fed.ustdatabase/feis/plmtsttree/picsittall.htm][9/25/2015 10:32:27 AM] Tree Physiology Page 1 of 11 Appendix E MICHIGAN FORESTS FOREVER TEACHERS GUIDE TREE PHYSIOLOGY THE ENVIRONMENT Quite a bit of time is spent on tree physiology, which is key to understanding many of our forest management practices, especially the concepts of shade tolerance and vegetation succession. Additionally, the topics of forest health, hydrologic cycle, and nutrient cycles are discussed. Home Page Welcome Page Table of Contents Benchmark Matrix Pre-test Information Tree Basics Section Environment Section Recreation Section Products Section Balance Section Intemet Links References Credits Index This is a fairly long section for several reasons. One, it provides the basis for much of what is addressed later in terms of forest management. Two, it has many connections to the Michigan Curriculum standards, particularly in science. Three, there are a lot of neat activities and observations associated with the topic. Concept List: Little Known or Interesting Factoids About Tree Physiology The Necessities of Life • Trees both produce AND consume oxygen. Tree Parts • Young forests capture mon; carbon from the atmosphere than old forests. Photosynthesis and Respiration • Old forests have mon: stored carbon in the biomass than young forests. Chlorophyll • The food that trees produce for themselves are sugars. Tree Growth • The purpose of photosynthesis is to capture and store energy. Fall Color Change • Green light is the only part of the visible light spectrum that plants can't use. Sunlight • The timing of Autumn color change is largely controlled by lengthening nights. Environmental Factors • Conifers lose needles each fall, just the same as broad -leaf trees. Tree Regeneration Strategies • Trees grow TWO rings each year, one in the spring and another during the summer. Longevity • Swamp trees don't necessarily prefer swamps. Winter Adaptations . Tree species have highly variable requirements for light, nutrients, and moisture. • Merlstem • Oceans produce mon: oxygen and stop: more carbon than forests. Some Important Terms • Photosynthesis • Annual Rings • Respiration • Springwood & Summerwood • Oxygen • Cellulose • Carbon Dioxide • Mycorhizae • Trophic Level • Producer • Food Chain • Consumer • Chlorophyll • Glucose • Anthocyanin • Shade Tolerance • Carotenoid • Crown • Abscission Layer • Canopy • Cambium • Compartmentalization • Merlstem The Necessities of Life The following is brief discussion of each of six key requirements for trees. More detail of some topics is found later in this guide. http://mff.dsisd.net/EnvironmentrFreePhys.htm 11/18/2015 Tree Physiology Page 2 of 11 Appendix E 1. Sugars supplied by photosynthesis. Air and water are chemically recombined to form glucose, which stores energy captured from the sun. Oxygen is a byproduct. 2. Water is required for most metabolic activities and serves as a vehicle to carry materials through a tree. A large tree may move as much as 50-100 gallons of water on a hot summer day. 3. Nutrients. It's not how much of a particular nutrient exists in the environment, it's a matter of how available the nutrient is to the tree. For example, the atmosphere is largely composed on nitrogen, but trees can only use nitrogen in forms that have been altered by soil bacteria and other organisms. The major chemical elements used by plants are: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, sulfur, calcium, iron, and magnesium. You might be able to remember this by a jingle formed using the abbreviations for these elements: C H O P K N S Ca Fe Mg ... "see hopkins cafe, might good." 4. Hormones and enzymes. These chemicals are critical in the controlling the timing and activity of physiological processes. They are usually produced in the roots or leaves. We don't often think of plants having "hormone" deficiencies, but they are critical to the survival of any organism, including trees. 5. Mycorrhizae. Pronounced 'my -core -M -zee" this a group of beneficial fungi associated with most tree roots. It represents an ecologically symbiotic relationship where the fungi receive food from the tree and the trees receive greatly enhanced nutrient and water absorption. Mycorrhizae will also protect tree roots from other invading fungi. There tends to be very specific species relationships between fungus and tree. 6. Environmental factors. A tree needs an appropriate mix of precipitation, temperature, sunlight, and soils in order to thrive. These factors need to occur at the right time. Each tree species has a different set of environmental requirements. Changing climate will lead to changing environmental factors, which can lead to changes in forest ecosystems. Return to TOP of page. Tree Parts The parts and structure of a tree has obvious components and some not so obvious components. What makes a tree a tree? First, a tree has all the characteristics of green plants. Beyond that, a tree is a tall plant with woody tissue. It has the capability to "push" its crown (the primary location for photosynthesis) above other vegetation competing for light. Also, most people don't readily connect trees with having flowers but they do, although our conifers (pines, spruces, firs, etc.) don't have true flowers with petals. The reproductive structures of each species are particularly unique and are used more than any other structure to categorize trees. This categorization is called taxonomy. The tree identification section talks more about taxonomy. A tree has a dilemma in terms of gathering its resources. It has a distinct light -gathering advantage of having its leaves high above other plants, but there is the problem of getting water and soil nutrients to the upper tissues. The microenvironment in the upper canopy is also rather hostile to sensitive tissues. At the other end of the tree, the roots are dependent upon materials produced way up in the crown. This problem, of course, is solved by the structure of the tree trunk, or bole, a most distinctive feature of trees: Definition of a tree: A woody perennial plant, typically large and with a well-defined stem or stems carrying a more or less definite crown - Activity Sugges]1tse Es PLT SWIEverySTree PLT Soil Sfor(es -Society of American Foresters, 1998 Marching Trees PLTDvnamfcD Definition of a tree: A woody perennial plant, typically large and with a well-defined stem or stems carrying a more or less definite crown - note, sometimes defined as attaining a minimum diameter of 5 inches and minimum height of 15 feet at maturity with no branches within 3 feet of the ground. -Society of American Foresters, 1998 oma G. l " o Ww k, - Co.yilun o;u.:n sps,mw Yyh. t11O' •� H..wd / I rhwn, > TREE "COOIOE"' e.n Cam 14.1 http://mf£dsisd.net/Environment/TreePhys.htm 11/18/2015 Tree Physiology Appendix E Page 3 of 11 Most of a tree trunk is dead woody tissue and serves only to support the weight of the crown. The very outside layers of the tree consists of bark. Underneath the bark is a cork cambium layer that generates new bark. Under the cork cambium lies a thin band of phloem, which is living tissue that transports materials from the crown to the roots. Under the phloem is another vascular cambium zone that produces both new phloem cells and new xylem cells. The wider band of xylem, or sapwood, transports water to the crown, but is not necessarily living. The innermost portion of the trunk is non -living heartwood, which is a repository for many waste products of the tree's living tissue: Only a thin band around the trunk, roughly a centimeter wide, is living tissue. Each year, a tree grows a pair of annual rings (TWO rings each year!). In the spring, the usually wider and thinner -walled layer grows. It is called "springwood". In the summer, through about mid-July, a usually darker and thicker -walled layer is produced. It is called "summerwood". Annual rings are typical in temperate forest trees and tropical forest trees that have regular, annual dry seasons. In tropical humid rainforests, trees grow continually and do not have rings. The oldest portion of a tree is at the bottom and on the inside. Parts List Without going into a lot detail, important parts of a tree are: MCF Benchmarks _ ' S.111.2.ms2 Activity Suggestion PLT Tree Cookies http://mff.dsisd.net/EnvironmentfrreePhys.htm 11/18/2015 Leaves Broad -leaf or needles, the primary site of photosynthesis and the production of hormones and other chemicals Support structure for leaves, flowers, and fruits. Arrangement varies Twigs & from species to species by growth strategy. Can sometimes have Branches photosynthetic tissues. Two kinds of growth tissue, at the twig tips and cambium under the bark. The upper region of the tree made up of leaves, twigs, branches, Crown flowers, and fruits. Crowns of many trees are collectively called the "canopy". May have both female & male parts, or only one or the other. Some Flowers trees are either all female or all male (e.g. aspen). Flowers may have a full complement of flower parts, or may be missing certain elements. Conifers do not have petals and associated structures. Fruits & All trees have seeds. Most trees have seeds inside fruits. Most fruits Seeds are NOT edible, but many are, such as apples, cherries, nuts, etc. Most definitions of trees include a "single bole" concept, but many of our Trunk or tree species sometimes occur with multiple stems. The main functions Bole of a trunk are transport and support. The trunk has growth tissue called cambium. Bark A highly variable tree part. The main function is to protect the sensitive living tissues from weather and predation (by animals, insects, fungi, etc.) Roots serve two main functions; collection of nutrients and water, and anchoring the tree. Roots also have growth tissue, bark, and wood. Roots Like twigs and branches, roots have two kinds of growth tissue, at the twig tips and cambium under the bark. Fine root hairs are where absorption occurs. MCF Benchmarks _ ' S.111.2.ms2 Activity Suggestion PLT Tree Cookies http://mff.dsisd.net/EnvironmentfrreePhys.htm 11/18/2015 Tree Physiology Appendix E Return to TOP of nage. Photosynthesis and Respiration Page 4 of I I All trees (most plants) both photosynthesize and respire. Photosynthesis is a process unique to green plants and produces sugars, which are "tree food." Animals only respire and cannot produce their own food. That's why plants are called "producers" and animals are called "consumers." Photosynthesis can be visualized in a couple ways. • Sugars produced are analogous to a "solar battery." The sugar is a chemical way to store energy for future use (metabolism). • Trees produce their own food. We call "tree food" sugar. These sugars are not usually of the chemical structure of refined sugar and don't usually taste sweet, but the basic organic components are similar. The basic chemical formula for photosynthesis is: Inputs: 6 carbons, 24 oxygens, 24 hydrogens Outputs: 6 carbons, 24 oxygens, 24 hydrogens Note: Inputs and outputs must balance in a chemical equation. In other words, what goes in, must come out! Energy is stored in the bonds of sugar molecules such as "glucose" and "fructose." Oxygen is a by-product of photosynthesis. The oxygen molecules produced by photosynthesis are not necessarily the same oxygen molecules the plants use for respiration. These sugars are later broken apart and the released energy drives a variety of metabolic actions. The process of breaking down these sugars is called "respiration." It is the same process that animals (and people) use when they respire (not to be confused with "breathing"). So, either the plant uses its own stored sugars, or some animal (or decomposer) consumes the plant, and uses the stored sugars. In either case, the sugars are valued chemicals because they contain energy, as well as important elements (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen). C6Ht20s+(6)02 � (6)CO2 + (6)H20 (6)CO2 + (6)H20 C6H1206 +(6)02 � Carbon Dioxide +Water+ENERGY EFMCirbonDioxide + Water + ENERGY Glucose +Oxygen Summary equation for respiration Summary equation for photosynthesis Energy is stored in the bonds of sugar molecules such as "glucose" and "fructose." Oxygen is a by-product of photosynthesis. The oxygen molecules produced by photosynthesis are not necessarily the same oxygen molecules the plants use for respiration. These sugars are later broken apart and the released energy drives a variety of metabolic actions. The process of breaking down these sugars is called "respiration." It is the same process that animals (and people) use when they respire (not to be confused with "breathing"). So, either the plant uses its own stored sugars, or some animal (or decomposer) consumes the plant, and uses the stored sugars. In either case, the sugars are valued chemicals because they contain energy, as well as important elements (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen). C6Ht20s+(6)02 � (6)CO2 + (6)H20 � Carbon Dioxide +Water+ENERGY ]ENERGYGlucose+Oxygen Summary equation for respiration What does a tree use its photosynthate for (glucose and fructose) in addition to energy storage and subsequent release? F Apply the Concept: The "10% rule of thumb." Cell walls are made of cellulose (C6HioO5). Cellulose shows up Plants are able to "(x"about 10% of the solar in many plant parts in combination with other molecular energy that reaches plant surfaces (usually elements. It is not only vital to the tree, but is also a very less, however). "Fixing"means converting solar energy into chemical energy (sugars). Organisms that consume plants, are able to http://mff.dsisd.net/Environment/TreePhys.htm 11/18/2015 Tree Physiology Page 5 of 11 Appendix E important material for people (wood, lumber, fuel, fibers, extract about 10% of the energystoredin the chemical extracts, energy, etc.). plant. Organisms that consume other resins, pitch, gums, balsam, camphor, natural rubber, pigments, consumers can extract only about 10% of the • Production of carbohydrates such as sugars (Ce1-11206), energy stored in theirprey. These levels of starches (CeHioOs), vegetable ivory (form of hemicellulose), energy consumption are called "trophic pectins (forjellies, jams), gums (used in many products, levels."Energy flow through an ecosystem including food products). (large or small) is a key life process. Threads these priorities. As energy in the form of glucose becomes limited, a of energy transfer are called "food chains." • Many fats and oils are common plant products (some of which Food chains also include the transfer of come from trees). These are compounds of mostly carbon, chemicals other than sugar. Many nutrients, hydrogen, and oxygen, but with lots more molecules of each. amino acids, and other compounds are reason why foresters are so keen to maintain a vigorous growing digested and recombined by consumers along • Proteins are formed when the C, N. O elements are combined anyparticular food chain. with nitrogen, sulfur, and sometimes phosphorus. Certain how different forests grow in different ways. Apply the Concept: Crown size and I proteins used by animals (and people) can only be obtained by ingesting plant products. photosynthesis • There are numerous secretions produced by trees (and other All the leaves and branches of a tree are plants) that are important to people, such as clove oil, cedar oil, collectively called the "crown."All the crowns resins, pitch, gums, balsam, camphor, natural rubber, pigments, of forest are collectively called the "canopy." drugs (legal and illegal), etc. As forests age and trees grow, cmwns begin to touch each other and the forest canopy A note about energy allocation within trees. Energy is not a limitless closes. Most of the tree crowns will be unable resource for trees. A tree will typically move energy according to to grow as rapidly as if they had has space to these priorities. As energy in the form of glucose becomes limited, a occupy. The photosynthetic capacity will be tree will begin to reduce resources spent beginning with the lowest spread among a greaternumber of trees. That priority. As you can see, a tree with a diminishing crown will become means less photosynthesis per tree, which more vulnerable to insects and diseases rather quickly. That's one translates into slowergrowth. Slaw growth can reason why foresters are so keen to maintain a vigorous growing be a contributor to tree stress, which can lead environment. to tree health problems. Foresters understand how different forests grow in different ways. �. Maintain respiration of all parts. They can recognize a forest that is too 2. Produce fine roots and leaves. crowded and prescribe a thinning, where 3. Produce Flowers and seed. some trees are removed so that others may 4. Extend branches and roots. grow better. 5. Store energy rich chemicals. s. Add wood to stem, roots and branches. In addition to channeling more growth onto a 7. Create anti -pest chemicals for defense. fewer number of trees, thinning the canopy can have a verypositive impact on the Activity Suggestions understory. More light to the forest floor will ijMe PLT Air Plants Car- I stimulate the regeneration of trees and PLT Sunlight B Shades of Green promote more vegetation in the understory layers of a forest. More vegetation in the understory creates more vertical structure, which often leads to greater species diversity in the forest. MCF Benchmarks S. 1.m.1.ms2 S.III .1.ms3 S.111.2.ms3, S.III.S.ms3 Return to TOP of Daae. Chloroohvll Chlorophyll is the chemical compound where solar energy (light) is captured and photosynthesis happens. Chlorophyll is continuously produced and broken down during the growing season. The heart of the chlorophyll compound is a magnesium molecule. The magnesium molecule is bonded to many molecules of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen. Ce5H7205N4Md Chlorophyll "a", one of several forms of chlorophyll http://mffdsisd.net/Environment/I'reePhys.htm 11/18/2015 Tree Physiology Appendix E There are different kinds of chlorophyll that absorb different colors in the light spectrum. The only color that is pretty much useless to plants is green, which is why plant tissues containing chlorophyll appear green. It's the color that is reflected back into the environment. The process of photosynthesis is very complicated and driven by a series of enzymes. Enzymes function within fairly narrow temperature windows. Within these temperature windows heat Page 6 of 11 Experiment Suggestion: Grow plants (beans, peas, fast-growing plants) in containers of different light. Transparent plastic wrap covering containers will filterlight spectra. Compare growth rates of plants. accelerates photosynthesis to a certain point and cold slows it down. Outside the temperature window, photosynthetic activity drops off, most quickly with hot temperatures. ®®®� 7 Activity suggestion MCF Benchmarks S.111.1.ms3. S.II1.2.ms3. S.111.5.ms3 PLT Sunlight & Shades or Green Return to TOP of Pape. So, photosynthesis produces all this glucose... what then? Essentially, the energy in glucose is used by trees (and most other living things) to drive metabolic processes that produce tissues and maintain life functions. Keep in mind that this whole thing called life is a big solar powered system! A tree will draw nutrients and minerals from the soil, break them down and put them back together to form compounds and chemicals that we recognize as a tree. The most common material made by a tree is "cellulose. " Cellulose is a complex sugar that is the main component of wood and many other plant tissues. It's also an extremely useful material for lots of human uses, such as food products, paper, strengthener in plastics and concrete, clothing, and other things. Wood is the answer to the tree challenge of pushing a crown as high as possible to obtain the best light - capturing position as possible, while maintaining a connection with water and nutrient supplies in the soil. Where does a tree grow? In three places. • At the twig tips (meristem). • At the root tips (meristem). • Around the outside of the trunk, branches, and roots One region of tissue expansion or tree growth is at the tips of both twigs and roots, called the 'meristem."This is unspecialized tissue that can form wood, buds, or flowers. Each year, trees will lengthen twigs and nests, produce flowers and fruit, and grow new buds. The meristem and newly produced tissues are rich with nutrients and are often the target of attack by diseases, insects, and animals. Deer, for example, are Michigan's most significant browser. In areas of high populations, deer can destroy years of growth on small trees and entirely eliminate regeneration. TREE GROWTH ZONES A tree with growth zones illustrated, branch meristem, mot meristem, cambium. Most of a tree trunk, branch, or root is dead wood. The living part is only a narrow band on the outside edge. This living layer is produced by thin bands of regenerating tissue called "cambium. " Cambium produces new wood on the inside and new bark on the outside. The cambium grows only from the inside out, not up or down the length of a trunk, branch, or root. For awhile, the new wood and bade are living. The wood actively transports many materials up and down the tree and performs other functions. After the wood dies, it still serves as a transport route for several years. Eventually, even that function is diminished and the wood serves primarily as structural support. �:d �imnti �\ u:., h eu• )COOIQJ 9m:ae:. ChAu� f TREE http://mff.dsisd.net/EnvironmentfrreePhys.htm 11/18/2015 Tree Physiology Appendix E Page 7 of 11 Each year the cambium produces TWO distinct rings of tissue. In the spring, a layer of thinner -walled cells are grown. In the summer, a layer of thicker -celled, sometimes larger cells are grown. The layers are called "Springwood" and "summerwood,"respectively. When counting the age of tree 'cookie,"either the springwood orsummerwood rings can be counted, but don't count both (unless you divide your sum by two!). Most people count the typically narrower and darker summerwood. Tree such as oaks, ashes, and all the conifers produce fairly distinct rings which are easy to count. Other trees, such as aspens, red maple, and birch have less distinct rings. Foresters can count rings without cutting a tree down. A tool called an "increment borer" will extract a thin wood core from the tree, which can be used to age the tree. MCF Benchmarks M S.111.1.ms2 5.111.1.ms3, 5.111.5.ms3 Return to TOP of page. C Why do leaves change colors in the Autumn? The short answer is that chlorophyll production drops -off as night length increases. The green part of the light spectrum is no longer reflected and other compounds, chemicals called "anthocyanins" (reds) and "carotenoids" (yellows), become the dominant pigments in the leaves. The longer answer involves discussions of changing day lengths and weather, and strategies dealing with nutrient loss with the dropping of leaves. What is the story behind Autumn leaf fall? Project: Have kids collect different colored leaves in the fall. Categorize leaves by species and color. The same species may have many different colors, especially red maple. Also, have kids record the dates when trees at home, at school, or in another selected place begin to change color. Make notes by species and see if any pattems can be observed. It would be interesting to have a The purpose of Autumn leaf fall is to prepare for winter dormancy. I sister" school in a different part of the state to The cold temperatures prevent trees and plants from functioning in at compare color change with. least three ways. Water would freeze in the plant tissues, causing cell rupture. Water in the upper soil layers often freezes, making absorption impossible. Lastly, the low temperatures are far outside the operating windows for the enzymes that control a tree's metabolic processes, such as photosynthesis and respiration. To avoid these environmental limitations, trees prepare for dormancy in the Autumn. Trees drop leaves because they are too difficult to "winterize" (unlike most conifers that have strategies to maintain their green parts during the winter and needles have a much different structure than broad leaves). Or, in the case of conifers, the needles that have grown old after two to three years, no longer receive as much light, and are shed each Autumn. However, dropping tons of biomass per acre presents the problem of losing significant amounts of valuable nutrients. Much of the sugars and valuable nutrients are resorbed from the leaves, but the annual leaf drop still means the loss of a lot of good "stuff "In our north temperate climates, dropped leaves become part of the 'organic layer" on the surface of the soil, to be recycled (in part) by decomposers. There are two components influencing the Autumn color display, the timing and the intensity. The timing is usually controlled by lengthening nights and the intensity is strongly influenced by weather. The most dependable seasonal environmental factor is the change in daylight, or more accurately, the lengthening dads period. Such things as rainfall or temperature might "fool" a tree into retaining leaves too long. For this reason, the timing of leaf -drop is regulated by the consistent movement of the Earth around the Sun. However, a late spring or extremely dry summer can postpone the response to lengthening nights by a week or two. Just "when" a tree begins to tum color varies from species to species, and geographically from north to south. In our northern forests, black ash is the first to change color. Tamarack (a needle -bearing tree) is the last. The intensity or brilliance of the color change is influenced by weather conditions during the period of declining chlorophyll production. A series of sunny days and cool nights (above freezing) result in a more colorful display. hftp://mff.dsisd.nettEnvironment/TreePhys.htm 11/18/2015 Activity Suggestions PLT Tree Cookies Aft PLT How Plants Grow — PLT Every Tree For ltselr PLT How Big Is Your Tree? PLT Trees In Trouble Project: Have kids collect different colored leaves in the fall. Categorize leaves by species and color. The same species may have many different colors, especially red maple. Also, have kids record the dates when trees at home, at school, or in another selected place begin to change color. Make notes by species and see if any pattems can be observed. It would be interesting to have a The purpose of Autumn leaf fall is to prepare for winter dormancy. I sister" school in a different part of the state to The cold temperatures prevent trees and plants from functioning in at compare color change with. least three ways. Water would freeze in the plant tissues, causing cell rupture. Water in the upper soil layers often freezes, making absorption impossible. Lastly, the low temperatures are far outside the operating windows for the enzymes that control a tree's metabolic processes, such as photosynthesis and respiration. To avoid these environmental limitations, trees prepare for dormancy in the Autumn. Trees drop leaves because they are too difficult to "winterize" (unlike most conifers that have strategies to maintain their green parts during the winter and needles have a much different structure than broad leaves). Or, in the case of conifers, the needles that have grown old after two to three years, no longer receive as much light, and are shed each Autumn. However, dropping tons of biomass per acre presents the problem of losing significant amounts of valuable nutrients. Much of the sugars and valuable nutrients are resorbed from the leaves, but the annual leaf drop still means the loss of a lot of good "stuff "In our north temperate climates, dropped leaves become part of the 'organic layer" on the surface of the soil, to be recycled (in part) by decomposers. There are two components influencing the Autumn color display, the timing and the intensity. The timing is usually controlled by lengthening nights and the intensity is strongly influenced by weather. The most dependable seasonal environmental factor is the change in daylight, or more accurately, the lengthening dads period. Such things as rainfall or temperature might "fool" a tree into retaining leaves too long. For this reason, the timing of leaf -drop is regulated by the consistent movement of the Earth around the Sun. However, a late spring or extremely dry summer can postpone the response to lengthening nights by a week or two. Just "when" a tree begins to tum color varies from species to species, and geographically from north to south. In our northern forests, black ash is the first to change color. Tamarack (a needle -bearing tree) is the last. The intensity or brilliance of the color change is influenced by weather conditions during the period of declining chlorophyll production. A series of sunny days and cool nights (above freezing) result in a more colorful display. hftp://mff.dsisd.nettEnvironment/TreePhys.htm 11/18/2015 Tree Physiology Appendix E Page 8 of 1 I The warm days increase production of both sugars and anthocyan!n pigments. Sugars "stranded" in the leaf and greater concentrations of anthocyanins bring out the scarlets and reds, especially the deep purple of northern red oak. Carotenoids yield the yellow and golden colors but tend to remain at fairly constant concentrations regardless of weather. So, how might weather affect the fall colors? • Warm Autumn weather will generally reduce the color quality. • Moist soils following a good growing season contribute to better displays. • A few warm, sunny days and cool nights (at the right time) will increase brilliance. • Droughts will usually result in poorer displays. What causes the leaves to actually fall off? Wind, most commonly. As nights lengthen, a layer of cells forms in the leaf stem near the twig, called the 'abscission layer. " Abscission means cutting or severing. This layer blocks transfer of materials to and from the leaf. The abscission layer also makes a weakened connection. Eventually, wind, rain, snow, or animals will knock the leaf from the twig. MCF Benchmarks InS.111.2.msl . S.111.2.ms3 Return to TOP of pace. Sunliaht and Tolerance of Shade It's commonly known that trees and plants need sunshine to live. However, not all trees need the same amounts of sunlight. Trees that require high amounts of sunlight an. sensitive to shade. Foresters call this sensitivity "shade tolerance" orjust "tolerance" The shade tolerance of some tree species will vary with age. Tree species such as aspen, cherry, paper birch, jack pine, and red pine require lots of sun and are not tolerant of shade. That's part of the reason stands of these species tend to be all about the same age. Seeds of these species that germinate unde a canopy of shade do not survive. Other tree species are more tolerant of shade, such as sugar maple, beech, balsam fir, hemlock, and cedar. They can survive as seedlings or saplings under a fairly heavy canopy of shade for many years. When exposed to light, the small trees (not always young trees!) can quickly grow to take advantage of the new light regime. There are a number of tree species that fall into the moderately tolerant category, such as red oak, red maple, yellow birch, white ash, white pine, and white spruce. The may be able to grow under the light canopy of an aspen or paper birch stand, but would not be very successful under the shade of a maple -beech -basswood stand. Activity Suggestion PLT Signs of Fall Shade tolerance is key component of forest management systems. http://mffdsisd.net/Environment/TreePhys.htm 11/18/2015 Relative Sunlight Requirements For Representative Tree Species Paper Birch Tamarack Q: ;Q, ;Q ;tj ;(Q: Jack Pine Quaking Aspen Silver Maple bb.. ;Q: Red Pine Red Maple Red Oak Q: ;Q, ;Q, White Pine ' Yellow Birch Balsam Fir Q; ;91 White Spruce Sugar Maple Basswood ;Q Cedar Shade tolerance is key component of forest management systems. http://mffdsisd.net/Environment/TreePhys.htm 11/18/2015 Tree Physiology Page 9 of 11 Appendix E MCF Benchmarks I V1 S.111.3.ms2 Retum to TOP of nage. Other Environmental Factors Activity Suggestion PLT Sunlight 8 Shades of Green There are many environmental factors, both living and not living, that influence the growth of trees. This guide has already discussed some of them, such as light, nutrients, and temperature. Many of these factors interact with other. That's part of the reason why forest management can be complex. Tree adaptation to various environmental factors runs along gradients. Some tree species are more sensitive to a particular gradient than others. Rainfall or Precipitation Average annual rainfall varies across a wide geographical area. Some tree species can survive with less annual precipitation. As you move north and west, rainfall declines, and so do the number of tree species. More locally, available water may vary with microsites. The south sides of slopes will be drier, so will a sandy plain or areas with bedrock close to the surface. Soil Variability Scientists have identified over 475 soil types in Michigan. It stands to reason that different tree species have preferences for certain types of soil. Red pine and jack pine are well-known for their ability to grow well on sandier, poorer soils where most other trees grow poorly. Sugar maple and basswood prefer richer soils with lots of nutrients. Other species, such as bur oak and quaking aspen grow well on a wide variety of soils. This variability is largely related to the amount of available nutrients in a soil, the nutrient demand of a particular species, and a tree's ability to extract those nutrients. Moisture This is related to both rainfall and soils. The amount of available moisture varies during the year. High moisture levels during the dormant season will not help trees. Or usually hurt them. Saturated conditions from spring runoff or flooding does not hurt most trees because they are not actively growing. Some tree species are more tolerant of short periods of flooding during the growing season, such as bur oak or silver maple. Oddly enough, white cedar is quite sensitive to rapid changes in moisture, either wetter or drier. Northern swamp tree species grow on small, drymicrosites. They don't usually grow in the water. Biotic Factors These are the living parts of an ecosystem that trees interact with. Other plants will impact forests. Insects and diseases play a major role in forests. Animals like white-tailed deer, porcupines, and squirrels also have prominent roles. Not all of these impacts are negative. Many are beneficial. Insects pollinate tree flowers. Soil animals loosen soil. Birds eat lots of insects. And of course, humans manage forests for a wide variety of reasons. Mycorrhizae Pronounced my -core -Hl -zee", these are beneficial fungi to trees. The fungi are associated with tree roots in a symbiotic relationship. That's where both partners benefit from each other. The mycorrhizae increase a tree's ability to absorb water and nutrients. The tree supplies the mycorrhizae with a share ofphotosynthate. Sometimes, species of mychorrizae are only associated with a particular species of tree. The lack of proper mycon,hizae in the soil can prevent a tree from growing well, or maybe from surviving at all. It may be one of the factors that limit trees to a certain range. Scientists are leaming more about these special fungi. MCF Benchmarks n 5.111.3.ms2 'qty ActivitySuggeston PLT PIantATme http://mffdsisd.net/Environment/TreePhys.htm 11/18/2015 Tree Physiology Appendix E Return to TOP of page. Tree Regeneration Strategies Then: are four ways Michigan trees regeneration themselves. • Seeds • Root Suckers • Stump Sprouts Vegetative Layering All trees can reproduce by seeds. Each species has a unique set of requirements for seed production and germination. Seed dispersal strategies vary widely, from wind -driven seed to seeds carried by certain species of animals. Page 10 of I I Sprouts and suckers are similar, in that dormant buds "come alive" to form new shoots of parent trees. Sprouts are shoots from stumps or the base of a tree. Suckers are shoots that originate from buds on the root systems. Often times, sprouts and suckers will not grow until the parent tree dies or becomes very sick. The buds are held in dormancy by hormones produced in the leaves. When these hormone levels drop below a certain point, the dormant buds will grow. Vegetative layering is uncommon, occurring mostly in white cedar and Canada yew (which most would not consider treel). When branches or stems come in contact with the soil, cambium tissue sometimes form mots. In this way, former branches of a fallen cedar might become trunks of several "new" trees. Return to TOP of page. Tree Longevity Trees do not live forever, therefore cannot be 'preserved."A forest condition, or forest type might be preservable (if managed), but not individual trees. While people know that all living organisms eventually die, often times this is not taken into account when people consider forests. Tree longevity varies from about 70 years to over 1000 years, depending upon the species. Most trees do not live past 50 years (or 10 years, for that matter), if you consider attrition from the time of germination. Short-lived species tend to be successional 'Pioneers" or trees that first colonize an unforested site. Aspens, paper birch, cherries, jack pine are examples of short-lived tree species. They also tend to be intolerant of shade. Long-lived tree species tend to be more shade tolerant, occupy later stages of succession, and employ more "conservative" survival strategies. Sugar maple, basswood, beech, and white cedar are good examples. Note: "Succession" is explained in another place in this guide and is one of the most important concepts in forest ecology. Most Common Michigan Tree Species (by volume) and Their Expected Lifespans (in years) Note: Maximum lifespans may exceed the ages listed. Sugar Maple INorthem 200-300 Balsam Fir SEEDS ROOT ._7 SUCKERS STUMP SPROUTS LAYER White Oak 400-500 Quaking Aspen Sprouts and suckers are similar, in that dormant buds "come alive" to form new shoots of parent trees. Sprouts are shoots from stumps or the base of a tree. Suckers are shoots that originate from buds on the root systems. Often times, sprouts and suckers will not grow until the parent tree dies or becomes very sick. The buds are held in dormancy by hormones produced in the leaves. When these hormone levels drop below a certain point, the dormant buds will grow. Vegetative layering is uncommon, occurring mostly in white cedar and Canada yew (which most would not consider treel). When branches or stems come in contact with the soil, cambium tissue sometimes form mots. In this way, former branches of a fallen cedar might become trunks of several "new" trees. Return to TOP of page. Tree Longevity Trees do not live forever, therefore cannot be 'preserved."A forest condition, or forest type might be preservable (if managed), but not individual trees. While people know that all living organisms eventually die, often times this is not taken into account when people consider forests. Tree longevity varies from about 70 years to over 1000 years, depending upon the species. Most trees do not live past 50 years (or 10 years, for that matter), if you consider attrition from the time of germination. Short-lived species tend to be successional 'Pioneers" or trees that first colonize an unforested site. Aspens, paper birch, cherries, jack pine are examples of short-lived tree species. They also tend to be intolerant of shade. Long-lived tree species tend to be more shade tolerant, occupy later stages of succession, and employ more "conservative" survival strategies. Sugar maple, basswood, beech, and white cedar are good examples. Note: "Succession" is explained in another place in this guide and is one of the most important concepts in forest ecology. Most Common Michigan Tree Species (by volume) and Their Expected Lifespans (in years) Note: Maximum lifespans may exceed the ages listed. Sugar Maple INorthem 200-300 Balsam Fir 70-100 Red Maple 125-150 White Oak 400-500 Quaking Aspen 60-90 Eastern Hemlock 400-500 Cedar 400-600 Jack Pine 80-100 Red Oak 200-300 Yellow Birch 200-300 Red Pine 200-250 Black Cherry 150-200 Bigtooth Aspen 75-100 White Ash unavailable Basswood 125-175 American Beech 300-400 Paper Birch 70-100 White Spruce 150-200 [White Pine 250-300 Black Spruce 200-250 http://mffdsisd.net/Environment/TreePhys.htm 11/18/2015 Tree Physiology Page 1 1 of I I Appendix E Winter Adaptations of Trees Trees must have adaptations to survive the cold and drying conditions of winter. Trees cannot change their location or behavior like animals can so they must rely on physiological and structural adaptations. The height advantage of trees becomes a liability in the winter, as tissues are exposed to the weather. There are four basic strategies that trees employ. 1. Either leaf drop or adaptations for leaf retention. 2. A physiological acclimatization process. 3. Resolution of water issues. 4. Methods of reducing mechanical damage. Broadleaf trees (hardwoods) drop their leaves during the winter, avoiding the problems of maintaining foliage in cold and dry conditions. Conifers (softwoods) retain foliage and have special adaptations in order to do so (better stomate control and a waxy coating called cutin). All trees go through an acclimatization process. Like leaf drop, the process is initiated by changes in photoperiod and is controlled by hormones and other chemicals. The process also exploits the physical properties of water. Winter conditions make finding sources of liquid water and transporting water a challenge. Water loss is minimized in several ways. Water can be obtained from the ground, within the tree, or from the subnivean (under snow) micro -environment. Conifers have special cell adaptations to facilitate water transport whenever temperatures allow it. Snow and ice accumulation can cause breakage, especially under windy conditions. Conifers have growth patterns that minimize the chances of damage occurring. Dramatic loss in vegetation from animal consumption increases pressure on woody tissues, especially foliage, buds, and bade. Browse damage can be significant in many regions of Michigan. Lastly, pollutants from highways, particularly road salts and exhaust, can damage trees, especially those more vulnerable to these chemicals. Click here for a more detailed explanation of winter adaptations of trees. t.1CF Benchmarks _ - S.111.5.ms4 Return to TOP of page. This website was developed and created by Michigan State University Extension for the teachers of the State of Michigan. The website is maintained by the Delta-Schoolcmft Independent School District in support of the Michigan Forests Forever CD-ROM from the Michigan Forest Resource Alliance. Page Name: Environment/TreePhys.htm Please provide comments to Bill Cook: cookwi(&msu.edu or 786-1575 881,140 http://mffdsisd.net/Environment/TreePhys.htm 11/18/2015. Appendix F Revised Scope of Work for proposals to provide Fire Damage Assessment on lands owned by the Kodiak Island Borough. (11/24/2015 by Duane Dvorak, Kodiak Island Borough Resource Management Officer) The Kodiak Island Borough suffered substantial fire damage to a stand of Sitka Spruce Forest of approximately 800 acres near the unincorporated community of Chiniak on Kodiak Island (ADL 59078). The Kodiak Island Borough would like to obtain a fire damage assessment for this tract to identify the extent of damage: 1. Percentage of Spruce trees that suffered substantial crown damage as a direct result of the fire event; 2. Percentage of Spruce trees that suffered substantial fire damage at the base or over the root system; 3. Percentage and location of areas within the property that may have escaped substantial fire damage; 4. Other observations that the consultant believes to be relevant, in their professional opinion, after reviewing the site. The Kodiak Island Borough is requesting a fire damage assessment only with no quantitative analysis of harvestable timber or computation of economic value. In addition to the percentages identified above, it would be beneficial to prepare a map showing the varying degrees of damage on the site in a visual manner for ease of conveying the results. It is not expected that the proposer will conduct a formal cruise in accomplishing the above tasks, but may use a combination of first hand site observations and other indirect sources of information to develop a picture of the conditions on the site. Chosen proposer must have an Alaska Business License and provide proof of insurance' prior to initiating the work. Proposals should be submitted in the form suitable for reference as an attachment in a borough professional services contract. ' A. Worker's Compensation Insurance if applicable The Contractor shall provide and maintain, for all employees of the Contractor engaged in work under this Contract, Workers Compensation Insurance as required by A523.30.045. The Contractor will be responsible for Workers Compensation Insurance for any subcontractor who provides services under this Contract. This coverage must include statutory coverage for States in which employees are engaging in work and employers liability protection not less than $100,000.00 per person, $100,000.00 per occurance. B. Comprehensive (Commercial( General Liability Insurance with coverage limits not less than $1,000,000.00 combined single limit per occurrence and annual aggregates where generally applicable and will Include premise operations, independent contractors, products/completed operations, broad form property damage, blanket contractual and personal injury endorsements. The Kodiak Island Borough shall be named as an "Additional Insured" under all liability coverage listed above. C. 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